California 

egional 

acility 


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THE  REPUBLICS  OF  CENTRAL 
AND    SOUTH    AMERICA 


The  Plaza,  Quito 


Uiiderivood  &  Underwood 


THE 

REPUBLICS  OF  CENTRAL 
AND     SOUTH     AMERICA 

THEIR  RESOURCES,  INDUSTRIES, 
SOCIOLOGY     AND     FUTURE 


BY 

C.    REGINALD    ENOCK,   F.R.G.S. 

Author  of 

"  The  Andes  and  the  Amazon,"  "  Mexico," 
"  An  Imperial  Commonwealth,"  etc.,  etc. 


WITH    SIXTEEN    ILLUSTR.\TIONS    AND    NINE    MAPS 


SECOND  AND  REVISED  EDITION 


LONDON:     J.    M.    DENT    &    SONS,    LTD. 
NEW  YORK:   CHARLES  SCRIBNER'S  SONS.     1922. 


First  Published     .      1913 
Revised  Edition     .      iqzz 


A II  rights  reserved 

PRINTED    IN    GREAT    BRITAIN 


PREFACE 

The  purpose  of  this  book  is  to  provide,  within  the  compass 
of  a  single  volume,  a  succinct  study  of  the  Latin  American 
republics,  and  their  social  and  physical  conditions  ;  which, 
whilst  affording  exact,  and,  to  a  considerable  extent,  detailed 
information,  is  at  the  same  time  of  interest  to  the  general 
reader.  There  are  many  books  of  travel  and  description 
dealing  with  these  lands,  but  none  perhaps  affording 
a  review  such  as  is  aimed  at  in  the  present  work. 
Furthermore,  the  sociology  of  the  Latin  American  communi- 
ties, which  is  dealt  with  here,  has  been  much  neglected, 
and  is  little  understood  by  the  general  reader.  The  most 
important  science  at  the  present  time,  perhaps,  is  that 
still  undeveloped  one  which  may  be  termed  "  human  geo- 
graphy "  :  the  economic  relation  of  the  people  of  a  land  to 
their  environment,  and  of  their  rights  as  concern  the  natural 
resources  around  them.  It  is  this  science,  the  author  ven- 
tures to  afhrm,  which  will  determine  the  future  equilibrium 
of  society.  The  advantages  which  the  Latin  American  coun- 
tries offer  to  the  trading,  investing,  and  emigrating  peoples 
of  the  world  are  set  forth  side  by  side  with  this  element, 
together  with  their  various  attractions  and  peculiar  interests 
in  other  fields. 

London,  1913. 


INTRODUCTION  TO  THE  SECOND  EDITION 

Since  the  publication  of  the  lirst  edition  of  the  present 
work,  there  has  been  comparatively  little  change  in  the 
general  circumstances  of  the  Latin  American  republics. 
Political  and  social  development  is  slow  in  such  com- 
munities, notwithstanding  frequent — and  often  violent — 
change  of  government,  whilst  trade  activities  (often  erro- 
neously held  to  be  synonymous  with  economic  growth) 
have  fluctuated  in  sympathy  with  general  world-conditions. 
In  the  Great  War  the  majority  of  the  Latin  American 
States  showed  their  sympathy  with  the  Allied  cause,  both 
realising  its  justice  and  displaying  their  worldly  wisdom. 
Some,  however,  remained  neutral,  and  there  were  not 
wanting  certain  adverse  elements.  The  populations  of  these 
lands  increase  slowly,  except  as  regards  those  few  into 
which  European  immigration  is  more  marked.  With  regard 
to  the  needful  uplifting  of  the  great  poor  and  illiterate 
bulk  of  folk,  which  involves  all  but  a  relatively  small  pro- 
portion of  the  inhabitants  of  the  Central  and  South  American 
republics,  with  Mexico,  it  cannot  be  said  that  their  rulers 
have  in  general  awakened  to  the  fact  that  this  is  the  main 
problem  of  government.  There  is,  however,  some  improving 
tendency  as  regards  education  and  the  status  of  the  manual 
worker;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  industrial  unrest  and 
the  growth  of  revolutionary  socialistic  doctrine  more  than 
keep  pace,  as  is  inevitable,  with  this  growth.  In  the  field 
of  manufacturing  industry  home  manufacture  as  against 
importation  shows  some  increase,  but  the  foreign  merchant 
may  nevertheless  draw  some  satisfaction  from  the  increased 
demand  by  a  growing  wealthy  native  class  for  articles  ot 
foreign  luxury.  The  Latin  American  States  cannot  expect 
to  become  great  by  reason  of  commercial  resources,  as  fully 
discussed  in  this  book;  but  so  far  those  elements  which 
may  make  for  a  truer  civilisation  in  this  part  of  the  world 
emerge  but  slowly.  However,  the  general  conditions, 
physical  and  commercial,  of  these  little-understood  nations 
are  full  of  interest,  and  especially  so  to  the  British  and 
North  American  people;  a  fact  which  is  borne  out  by  the 
constant  demand  for  books  dealing  therewith  in  England 
and  the  United  States. 

The  Author. 

Froxfield,  Hants,  England,   1922^ 


CONTENTS 


CHAP. 

I.    GENERAL   PHYSICAL   AND   SOCIAL   CONDITIONS    . 
II.    THE    UNITED    STATES   OF   BRAZIL 

III.  THE  AMAZON   VALLEY 

IV.  THE  REPUBLICS  OF  THE  RIVER  PLATE — ARGENTINA 

V.    THE     REPUBLICS     OF     THE     RIVER     PLATE — URUGUAY     AND 
PARAGUAY  ..... 

VI.   THE   REPUBLICS   OF  THE   ANDES — PERU     . 

VII.   THE   INCAS   OF  PERU         .... 

VIII.   THE   REPUBLICS   OF  THE   ANDES — ECUADOR 

IX.   THE   REPUBLICS   OF   THE   ANDES— BOLIVIA 

X.   THE   REPUBLICS   OF  THE   ANDES — CHILE    . 

XI.    COLOMBIA    AND    VENEZUELA      . 

XII.   THE   UNITED   STATES   OF   MEXICO       . 

XIII.  THE    AZTEC   AND    MAYA   ARCHiEOLOGY 

XIV.  CENTRAL      AMERICA  —  GUATEMALA,      HONDURAS,      BRITISH 

HONDURAS,       NICARAGUA,       SALVADOR,       COSTA       RICA, 
PANAMA  ......... 

XV.    FOREIGN  RELATIONS,  COLONISATION,  AND  COMMERCE  . 

XVI,    SOCIOLOGY   AND   FUTURE  ...... 


PAGE 

9 
60 

125 

174 
190 
242 
258 
275 
299 
341 
379 
433 


441 
470 
503 


INDEX 


523 


LIST  OF   ILLUSTRATIONS 


THE   PLAZA,   QUITO       . 

BOTAFOGO    BAY,    RIO    DE   JANEIRO 

RIO   DE   JANEIRO 

CENTRAL   AVENUE,   RIO   DE   JANEIRO 

GAUCHOS    SKINNING    CATTLE    ON    THE 

PAMPAS         .... 
LIMA,   FROM   SAN   CRISTOBAL 
A   GROUP   OF   LLAMAS   IN   THE   PLAZA    A 
INDIANS    OF   THE   PERUVIAN   AMAZON 
INCA    WALL   AT   CUZCO,    AND    QUECHUA 
QUITO,    ON    THE   EQUATOR     . 
THE   CORDILLERA    FROM    SANTIAGO 
THE    CATHEDRAL   OF   MEXICO 
POPOCATEPETL,    MEXICO 
MEXICO:    TAPPING   THE    MAGUEY    FOR 
NATIVE    GIRLS    OF   TEHUANTEPEC 
THE    AZTEC   CALENDAR    STONE 


•               •               < 

.    Frontispiece 

. 

To  face  page 

38 

. 

)} 

62 

. 

» 

76 

ARGENTINI 

}} 

150 

jj 

208 

iT   CUZCO 

}} 

224 

}> 

232 

INDIAN 

)} 

246 

. 

!J 

260 

. 

}> 

312 

. 

}> 

394 

. 

» 

402 

PULQUE 

'                         }} 

414 

. 

}} 

428 

. 

•                         }) 

436 

LIST   OF    MAPS 

Coloured 

SOUTH    AMERICA  ...... 

SOUTH    AMERICA   (POPULATION)      ... 

SOUTH    AMERICA   (OROGRAPHICAL) 

SOUTH    AMERICA   (ECONOMIC) 

MEXICO    AND    CENTRAL    AMERICA   (oROGRAPHICAL) 

PANAMA    CANAL.  ..... 


30 
42 

50 
382 

464 


Line 


MEXICO      . 
CENTRAL   AMERICA 
SOUTH    AMERICA 


408 
452 
523 


The  Republics  of 
Central  and  South  America 

CHAPTER     I 
GENERAL    PHYSICAL    AND    SOCL\L    CONDITIONS 

Under  the  broad  designation  of  Latin  America,  falling 
into  a  natural  group  by  reason  of  their  social  and  physical 
conditions,  are  included  the  independent  states  of  the  New 
World  originally  colonised  by  Spain  and  Portugal.  These 
political  divisions  of  the  western  hemisphere  cover  the  whole 
area  of  the  American  continents  south  of  the  United  States, 
embracing  Central  and  South  America  and  Mexico,  occupy- 
ing the  greater  half  of  the  land  area  of  the  New  World, 
and  embodying  some  of  its  richest  and  most  diversified,  as 
well  as  most  sterile  regions.  Bound  together  as  they  are  by 
common  ties  of  race,  language,  and  character,  these  important 
states  may  be  regarded  as  forming  a  natural,  although  not  a 
political  federation,  with  a  strong,  distinctive  civilisation, 
opposed  to,  although  not  necessarily  clashing  with,  that  of 
their  Anglo-American  neighbours  in  the  north. 

The  economic  and  social  development  of  the  eighteen 
independent  repubUcs  of  the  continent  and  sub-continent, 
upon  Vv'hich  Spain  and  Portugal  so  indelibly  impressed  their 
languages  and  social  systems,  is  becoming  of  increasing 
interest  and  importance  to  the  world.  Whilst  still  in  great 
measure  an  unknown  quantity,  with  their  problems  unsolved, 
the  Latin  American  states  are  beginning  to  play  their  part 
in  the  community  of  nations,  and  to  contribute  towards  the 
general  plan  of  world  development.  By  those  nations  who 
are  constrained  to  look  beyond  their  own  shores  as  concerns 


10  CENTRAL  AND    SOUTH    AMERICA 

matters  of  markets,  food  supply,  and  the  provision  or  settle- 
ment of  what  they  regard  as  their  surplus  population,  the 
southern  republics  of  America  are  beheld  with  increasing 
solicitude.  To  the  student  of  the  sociological  problems 
which  are  pressing  upon  the  whole  of  society  with  greater 
insistence  day  by  day,  the  march  of  self-governing  democracy 
as  represented  by  Latin  America — an  offshoot  of  Europe 
upon  a  new  soil,  with  local  problems  of  race,  topography, 
and  environment  distinct  from  those  of  the  Old  World — 
presents  conditions  and  comparisons  of  growing  interest 
and  value. 

The  world  of  Latin  America  has  always  possessed 
attraction  for  the  man  of  British  race  ;  and  to  the 
European  generally,  and  to  the  American  of  the  United 
States,  it  is  becoming  of  increasing  interest.  Mexico,  Brazil, 
Peru,  Argentina,  Chile  are  names  stamped  with  an  in- 
dividuality and  colour  which  the  more  prosaic  and  solid 
people  of  Anglo- America  do  not  possess.  Their  varied  and 
romantic  lands,  their  people,  picturesque  and  quixotic,  with 
their  own  peculiar  virtues  and  defects,  and  their  pleasing 
language  and  general  environment,  hold  an  attraction 
which  time  does  not  dispel.  For  the  early  Conquistadores 
there  lay  behind  every  promontory  an  unknown  empire, 
and  every  valley  and  forest  concealed  some  Eldorado  : 
there  were  mines  of  untold  wealth,  the  hidden  treasures  of 
the  Inca,  the  pyramids  of  the  Aztec,  the  mystery  and  allure- 
ment of  the  unknown :  and  if  the  impulse  of  those  days  of 
ocean  chivalry  and  conquest  is  gone,  allurement  remains, 
for  Plate  Ships  have  been  replaced  by  dividends,  and  an 
increasing  stream  of  gold,  won  through  commerce,  flows  from 
Latin  America  to  Britain,  France,  Germany,  Italy,  and  the 
United  States. 

To  name  the  varied  products  of  those  vast  regions  is  alone 
to  disclose  the  rornance  of  exports  and  trafficking.  The  mere 
names  of  articles  enumerated  on  consular  invoices  or  bills 
of  lading  open  an  arresting  vista  of  strange  tropic  and  sub- 
tropic  lands,  of  plains  and  forests,  of  shimmering  deserts  and 
snowy  mountains,  of  precipitous  mule-roads  and  staggering 
pack-trains,  of   irrigated  plantations  and  sandalled  peons. 


GENERAL  PHYSICAL  AND  SOCIAL  CONDITIONS    ii 

of  superstitious  miners  delving  in  their  rocky  galleries  for 
precious  ores,  of  the  gold-laced  customs  officer,  with  his 
brief  authority,  constant  cigarette,  and  courteous  Iberian 
chatter,  of  the  wave-beaten  steamer,  and  the  blue  horizon, 
less  blue  only  than  the  tropic  sky :  incidents  and  environ- 
ments such,  of  the  varied  lands  of  Latin  America.  The 
merchant  and  his  markets,  the  engineer  and  his  works, 
the  explorer  and  his  unmapped  forests  and  rivers,  the 
archaeologist  and  his  ruins,  the  emigrant  and  his  lands,  the 
financier  and  his  gains,  and  the  company-promoter  and  his 
projects  are  all  part  of  the  picture.  There  is  gold,  silver  and 
pearls,  cotton  and  nitrate,  sugar  and  cinnabar,  spices  and 
rubber,  rich  woods  and  healing  herbs,  copper  and  coal,  corn, 
wine,  olives  and  luscious  fruits,  sheep  and  cattle,  and  all 
else  that  modern  life  and  commerce  seek,  in  those  meridional 
lands  of  the  western  hemisphere,  to  be  had  by  the  enter- 
prising and  adventurous ;  lands  among  the  richest  and  least 
developed  provinces  of  the  globe,  now  called  upon  to  yield 
up  their  resources  to  the  exigent  demand  of  this  century. 
The  foreign  trade  of  Latin  America  has  reached  an  annual 
value  of  nearly  £500,000,000,  of  which  a  quarter  is  accounted 
for  by  Great  Britain. 

It  is  not,  however,  only  to  the  profit-seeking  merchant  or 
the  curious  traveller  that  Latin  America  is  here  to  be  dis- 
played. The  measure  of  humanity  and  progress  is  not  alone 
one  of  imports,  exports,  and  investments.  To  look  upon 
the  Latin  American  communities,  often  weak  and  backward 
as  they  are,  solely  as  fields  to  be  exploited  for  the  benefit  of 
foreign  shareholders  and  capitalists,  or  as  means  to  fill  the 
larders  of  the  teeming  factory  workers  of  another  continent, 
and  to  furnish  markets  for  their  exports,  would  be  to  con- 
template another  form  of  exploitation  only  less  selfish  than 
that  which  earlier  filled  the  coffers  of  the  moribund  empires 
of  Spain  and  Portugal.  To  the  people  of  a  land  first  belong, 
its  benefits  and  resources,  and  this  fact  commerce  has  yet 
duly  to  consider,  especially  as  regards  the  Latin  American 
communities.  At  the  present  time  Great  Britain  has,  in- 
vested in  Latin  America,  in  railways,  mines,  plantations, 
and  stocks  and   bonds,    the  colossal   sum  of  £940,000,000 


12  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

sterling,  yielding  dividends  of  5  to  30  per  cent,  ;  and  France, 
Germany,  and  the  United  States  other  great  sums  :  a  vast 
system  of  absentee  capitalism,  carrying  with  it  grave  duties 
and  responsibilities. 

The  importance  of  Latin  America  as  regards  the  extent 
of  its  territory  can  readily  be  grasped  in  outHne.  It  occupies, 
as  stated,  more  than  half  the  total  area  of  the  American 
continents,  covering  more  than  8,000,000  square  miles 
of  land.  The  greatest  length  of  territory  upon  which  Spanish 
is  spoken,  measured  upon  the  relatively  uniform  Line  of  the 
Pacific  coast,  is  7,000  miles,  extending  from  the  boundary 
of  the  United  States  with  Mexico,  southwardly  to  Chile. 
The  largest  Latin  American  state,  that  of  Brazil,  is  greater 
in  size  than  the  United  States  or  Canada,  larger  than  Europe 
without  Russia  ;  and  the  area  of  the  smallest  repubhc  of 
South  America,  Uruguay,  greatly  exceeds  that  of  England. 
The  total  population  of  Latin  America  is  calculated  as  about 
82,000,000,  an  average  of  about  ten  persons  to  the  square 
mile,  as  against  130  for  Europe,  with  enormous  areas  of 
only  two  to  the  square  mile.  The  population  of  South 
America  is  approximately  59,000,000,  somewhat  more  than 
that  of  the  United  Kingdom  alone. 

Thus  it  is  that  at  the  present  time  the  outstanding  feature 
of  the  Latin  American  republics  is  the  vast  extent  of  territory 
controlled  in  proportion  to  the  small  number  of  the  popula- 
tion. Brazil  covers  an  area  of  more  than  3,218,000  square 
miles,  with  over  25,000,000  inhabitants.  Argentina  nearly 
1,136,000  square  miles,  with  about  8,000,000  inhabitants. 
Mexico  767,000  square  miles,  with  about  17,000,000 
inhabitants  ;  Peru  and  Bolivia  have  more  than  700,000, 
and  Venezuela,  Colombia,  and  Chile  are  only  of  somewhat 
lesser  proportions,  with  populations  varying  from  3,000,000 
to  5,000,000.  The  areas  generally  assigned  to  these 
states  are  in  some  cases  approximate,  as  are  the  figures 
for  populations,  which  are  based  on  estimates  and  more  or 
less  doubtful  census  returns — conditions  due  to  difficulties 
arising  from  remoteness  and  unsurveyed  or  unsettled 
boundaries,  together  with  the  reluctance  which  the  people 
sometimes    display   towards   enumeration,   brought    about 


100        90lon^80West(if  Gr.  60 


"GEOGRAPHIA" L"  55  FLEET  STREET  LONO0N,eC* 


GENERAL  PHYSICAL  AND  SOCIAL  CONDITIONS    13 

largely  by  fear  of  taxation  and  enforced  military 
service. 

The  problems  of  life  and  economic  development  in  Latin 
America  differ  widely  from  those  which  fall  within  the 
experience  of  European  nations.  Great  variations  of  topo- 
graphy and  cHmate  characterise  this  southern  half  of  the 
New  World,  such  as  are  unknown  in  the  thickly-settled 
countries  of  the  Old  World,  or  even  to  the  people  of  the 
United  States  and  Canada.  Vast  regions  of  forests,  plains, 
and  mountains,  in  some  cases  forming  savage  territory, 
almost  unexplored,  occupy  areas  as  large  as  that  of  several 
European  countries  combined,  separating  the  centres  of 
Latin  American  civilisation  from  each  other.  In  the  western 
states  of  South  America  are  important  communities  whose 
daily  life  is  carried  on  in  an  environment  at  elevations 
approaching  that  of  the  summit  of  Mont  Blanc,  and  many 
of  the  capital  cities  of  Latin  America  are  at  altitudes  of  7,000 
to  10,000  feet  or  more  above  sea  level.  The  people  who 
form  these  communities  are  of  a  composition  found  only  in 
Latin  America,  where  a  sprinkling  of  a  white  race  is  slowly 
absorbing,  or  rather  blending  with  an  indigenous  brown 
race  of  Indians,  forming  the  basis  of  a  strong  and  virile 
people  in  whose  hands  hes  the  shaping  of  a  new  democracy. 
The  massive  continent  of  South  America,  like  the  massive 
part  of  North  America,  may  be  regarded  as  a  vast  entity  with 
a  common  social  system,  which  extends  to  Central  America 
and  Mexico,  the  whole  of  Latin  America  forming  perhaps 
the  most  homogeneous  unit  in  the  world,  one  which,  more- 
over, is  bringing  to  being  a  civilisation  which,  in  its  sphere, 
may  be  not  less  important  in  the  future  than  that  of 
Anglo-America. 

The  greater  part  of  the  area  of  Latin  America  lies  within 
the  tropics,  but  throughout  very  extensive  regions  the  effect 
of  latitude  is  negatived  by  that  of  altitude,  the  high  eleva- 
tions above  sea  level  serving  to  offset  the  heat  of  the  torrid 
zones.  Upland  districts  the  size  of  France  and  Germany  lie 
within  the  tropics,  with  a  cool  and  healthy  climate,  produc- 
tive of  the  resources  of  the  temperate  zone  and  free  from 
diseases  often  erroneously  considered  inseparable  from  the 


14  CENTRAL   AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

tropical  regions,  and  producing  a  hardy  and  intelligent  race. 
This  condition  of  high  elevation  is  one  which  must  pro- 
foundly affect  the  future  of  the  Latin  American  countries 
and  people  :  scarcely  any  of  these  states  is  without  its 
healthy  highlands  and  bracing  upland  atmosphere.  The 
great  differences  of  elevation,  which  account  for  the  varia- 
tions of  chmate  such  as  correspond  practically  to  differences 
of  latitude,  render  many  of  the  Latin  American  countries 
complete  entities  as  regards  their  food  products  and  other 
resources.  Thus,  the  lowlands  produce  foods  of  the  warm 
climate,  such  as  maize,  coffee,  sugar,  and  tropical  fruits,  and 
the  highlands  foods  of  the  temperate  climate,  such  as  wheat, 
potatoes,  and  cattle.  Taken  in  conjunction  with  their 
widely  distributed  mineral  deposits,  it  is  seen  that  many  of 
these  nations  possess  within  their  own  borders  everything 
necessary  for  the  life  of  a  modern  community,  whether  of 
food,  whether  of  raw  material  for  manufacture,  or  whether 
of  currency,  without  asking  anything  from  the  world  out- 
side. Economically  they  might  lead  mdependent  exist- 
ences, for,  from  this  point  of  view,  nature  has  provided  them 
with  complete  sets  of  things  requisite  for  human  life,  without 
going  beyond  their  own  borders.  The  formation  of  such 
countries  as  Mexico  and  the  Central  American  states,  and 
Colombia,  Venezuela,  Peru,  Ecuador,  and  Bolivia  might 
be  regarded  as  that  of  vast  truncated  pyramids,  their  bases 
set  in  the  tropics,  their  middles  in  temperate,  and  their 
summits  in  cold  lands,  upon  whose  slopes  nature  had  pro- 
vided of  purposeful  intent  zones  wherein  the  natural  pro- 
ducts of  all  climates  might  flourish  :  huge  natural  gardens 
one  above  the  other.  Nowhere  in  Europe  do  such  conditions 
exist  ;  and  it  may  be  that  in  the  future  and  more  intensive 
development  of  the  world  much  will  be  made  of  this  natural 
horticultural  system.  The  dweller  in  such  lands,  by  going 
up  or  down  the  valleys  of  his  country,  can  make  his  choice 
of  climatic  environment,  and  reap  sugar,  coffee,  or  wheat 
from  the  national  resources. 

The  Latin  American  peoples  are  commonly  subject  abroad 
to  certain  misconceptions  concerning  their  racial  composi- 
tion.    They  are  regarded  on  the  one  hand  as  Spaniards  or 


GENERAL  PHYSICAL  AND  SOCIAL  CONDITIONS    15 

Portuguese,  or  on  the  other  as  merely  half-breeds.  Neither 
of  these  descriptions  is  correct  ;  the  great  mixed  race  of 
European  and  Indian  blood,  the  mestizos,  which  now  forms 
the  bulk  of  the  Latin  American  nations,  is  too  far  removed 
from  the  original  stocks  to  be  specially  identified  by  either. 
They  are  not  correctly  described  as  half-breed  people,  but 
have  become  a  self-contained  type,  notwithstanding  that 
the  term  mestizo,  or  mixed  race,  is  taken  as  designating  the 
predom.inating  class,  which  is  neither  white  nor  Indian,  but 
is  formed  of  both.  In  Latin  America  the  admixture  of 
white  and  coloured  races  has  gone  on  unhindered,  the  reverse 
of  what  has  taken  place  in  Anglo-America,  where  the  Indian 
has  practically  disappeared.  In  this  process  the  less  moral 
character  of  the  Spaniard  and  Portuguese  was  the  equi- 
valent of  a  useful  adaptability.  Arriving  in  the  New  World 
without  their  women  the  men  of  the  Latin  race  from  the 
Iberian  peninsular  consorted  freely  with  the  native  women, 
and  a  mixed  race  began  to  spring  up  at  once.  The  tempera- 
ment and  habits  thus  introduced  continue  to  the  present 
time.  The  Latin  American,  of  whatever  condition,  is  far 
less  controlled  in  sexual  matters  than  the  Anglo-American, 
and  statistics  shew  that  a  very  large  percentage  of  births 
in  the  Latin  American  republics  are  illegitimate.  Little 
stress  or  censure  is  laid  on  this  condition  in  countries  the 
bulk  of  whose  population  is  ignorant,  and  the  female  element 
unprotesting,  and  whose  main  requirement  is  an  increase 
of  population  at  all  hazards. 

With  the  stock  thus  formed  other  races  are  mingling  in 
increased  degree,  due  to  immigration,  especially  that  of 
Itahans,  who  have  modified  the  composition  of  the  people 
of  Argentina  greatly.  British,  Germans,  French,  Arabs, 
Slavs,  Austrians,  and  a  sprinkling  of  all  nationahties  are 
encountered  in  smaller  degree  ;  and  even  in  remote  villages 
there  is  an  inevitable  contingent  of  foreigners,  as  a  rule. 
The  negro  element  is  that  resulting  from  slave  times,  and  is 
especially  strong  in  Brazil,  where  a  new  race  may  be  said 
to  be  coming  to  being,  formed  by  the  union  of  the  Portu- 
guese, the  Indian,  and  the  negro.  There  are  blacks  also  in 
Colombia,  Venezuela,  and  on  the  coast  of  Ecuador,  and  in 


i6  CENTRAL   AND   SOUTH  AMERICA 

Peru,  where  they  were  introduced  as  slaves  ;  and  these 
African  people  have  left  their  mark  on  the  population  in 
some  instances.  The  Asiatics  are  principally  represented 
by  the  Chinese,  who  were  originall}^  introduced  as  slaves, 
or  as  indentured  labour,  on  the  sugar  plantations  of  the 
Pacific  coast  ;  and  by  the  Japanese,  who  now  enter  as  free 
immigrants,  and  whose  advent  is  encouraged  by  the  Peru- 
vian and  BraziUan  governments.  In  Mexico  and  Central 
America  somewhat  similar  conditions  obtain  as  regards 
Asiatics,  and  there  is  a  small  admixture  of  Anglo-Saxon 
blood  from  the  United  States  in  the  regions  close  upon  the 
northern  railways,  and  in  Chile  and  various  other  places. 
There  is  no  comparison  or  affinity  between  the  indigenous 
races  and  the  African  negro  race,  which  is  far  inferior. 

Thus  the  distinguishing  types  of  people  inhabiting  Latin 
America  are  the  whites,  more  or  less  pure  ;  the  mestizos, 
formed  by  the  union  of  white  and  aboriginal ;  and  the  pure 
Indian  ;  then  follow  the  mulatto,  formed  by  the  union  of 
white  and  black  ;  and  the  zambo,  from  the  union  of  Indian 
and  black  ;  and  lastly  the  small  fusions  of  the  miscellaneous 
peoples.  The  first  three  are  those  of  national  importance, 
but  it  is  to  the  mestizo  that  the  future  of  Latin  America 
belongs  ;  and  it  is  this  class  which  constitutes  the  Mexican, 
Brazilian,  Peruvian,  Chilean,  or  other  specially  designated 
people  of  the  New  World. 

The  people  of  Mexico  and  Peru  especially,  have  little  to  be 
ashamed  of  as  regards  their  Indian  ancestry.  The  early 
inhabitants  of  those  lands  had  evolved  or  inherited  a  social 
organisation  and  culture,  in  the  Inca  and  Aztec  empires, 
which  ensured  the  admiration,  although  not  the  toleration, 
of  their  Spanish  conquerors  ;  and  even  to-day  the  history 
and  remains  of  this  culture  are  subjects  of  interest  to  the 
archaeologist.  The  Indian  races  of  Mexico  and  Peru  pro- 
duced heroic  figures  in  the  history.'  of  their  countries,  both 
before  and  since  their  indigenous  civilisations  were  absorbed 
or  destroyed,  among  whom,  in  the  latter  period,  and 
more  especially  in  Mexico,  were  statesmen  and  lawyers 
who  have  markedly  influenced  the  destiny  of  their  nations. 
Their    Indian   ancestry   is  generally    stamped    upon    the 


GENERAL  PHYSICAL  AND  SOCIAL  CONDITIONS    17 

physiognomy  and  cuticle  of  most  of  the  governing 
class  of  Latin  Americans  to-day.  It  is  commonly  asserted 
that  the  mixed  race  of  Latin  America  has  inherited  the 
vices  of  both  its  ancestors,  but  this  must  be  regarded  as 
a  harsh  characterisation.  It  should  rather  be  considered  as 
an  evolving  race,  full  of  life,  with  the  extravagances  of  a 
people  in  the  making.  It  is  in  their  hands  that  the  develop- 
ment of  half  the  western  hemisphere  lies,  for  the  absorption 
of  the  white  or  direct  Iberian-descended  upper  class  is 
but  a  question  of  time,  as  is  that  of  the  pure  Indians.  Not- 
withstanding that  there  is  no  "  colour  line  "  in  Latin  America, 
in  the  North  American  sense,  there  is  naturally  a  pride  in 
white  descent,  and  an  inevitable  tendency  to  look  down 
upon  the  pure  Indian  race.  The  Criollas,  or  Creoles,  as  the 
white  people  were  originally  termed,  always  regarded  them- 
selves as  the  superior  element,  and  this  trait  dies  slowly. 
Race-nostalgia,  the  regard  of  the  descendant  of  the  white 
colonist  for  the  land  and  traditions  of  his  forefathers,  pre- 
serves itself  for  generations  ;  and  to  a  share  in  this  sentiment 
perhaps,  is  due  the  fact  that  the  mestizo  is  harsher  in  his 
conduct  towards  the  Indian  than  is  the  man  of  pure  white 
race. 

The  relative  proportions  of  the  white,  the  mixed  or 
mestizo,  and  the  Indian  peoples  of  Latin  America  cannot 
be  set  down  with  any  exactitude.  They  are  not  sharply 
defined,  even  the  whites,  who  largely  monopolise  the 
ruling  professions  and  administrative  positions,  being 
inextricably  mixed  with  some  shade  of  aboriginal  blood  in 
most  cases  ;  whilst,  naturally,  the  line  between  the  mestizo 
and  the  Indian  shades  away  unequally.  Nevertheless,  the 
proportions  of  each  may  be  estimated  broadly.  In  Brazil, 
whilst  the  figures  are  extremely  unreliable  as  to  persons  of 
colour,  it  may  be  assumed  that  of  the  25,000,000  inhabitants 
40  per  cent,  are  whites,  30  per  cent,  are  mestizos,  20 
per  cent,  are  of  negro  blood,  and  the  remainder  Indians. 
In  Mexico,  the  next  largest  in  point  of  population,  the 
people  of  pure  white  descent  probably  number  about  15 
per  cent,  of  the  population,  the  mestizos  50  per  cent.,  and 
the  Indians  35  per  cent.     In  Argentina,  whilst  the  Indian 

B 


i8  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

has  made  an  important  contribution  to  the  population, 
both  this  and  the  neighbouring  repubhc  of  Uruguay  are 
white  to  a  greater  extent  than  any  other  South  American 
state,  due  to  recent  European  immigration  in  large  part. 
Black,  white,  and  red  or  brown  are,  however,  all  component 
and  visible  parts  of  the  Argentine  population  in  certain 
districts.  On  the  western  side  of  the  continent  the  mestizo 
tends  to  predominate  and  rule,  and  the  Indian  forms  the 
greater  proportion  of  the  inhabitants,  especially  in  Bolivia, 
Peru,  and  Ecuador.  In  Chile  the  Indians  are  a  vanishing 
race  ;  and  indeed  in  all  the  countries  of  the  Andean  region 
the  aboriginal  race  tends  to  diminish  rather  than  to  increase, 
due  to  the  abased  and  poverty-stricken  condition  of  their  life, 
to  the  inroads  of  disease  added  to  the  rigours  of  the  climate, 
and,  in  some  regions,  the  effect  of  forced  labour.  In  Peru 
about  60  per  cent,  of  the  population  are  pure  Indians,  about 
30  per  cent,  mestizos  ;  the  whites  of  pure  descent  being 
perhaps  10  per  cent,  or  less  of  the  total.  Bolivia,  Ecuador, 
and  Colombia  have  also  a  large  predominating  Indian 
population,  with  a  small  white  and  mestizo  governing  class  ; 
and  in  Venezuela  similar  conditions  obtain,  with  a  somewhat 
more  numerous  negro  element  near  the  seaports.  In  Chile 
the  white  class  rules,  and  there  is  a  small  admixture  of 
Europeans  of  recent  times,  among  which  English  names 
appear,  although  borne  by  Chileans.  The  Central  American 
republics  are  equally  mixed  ethnologically,  with  white, 
brown,  and  African  races  in  varying  proportions.  Calcula- 
tions generally  given  for  the  proportion  of  people  of  pure 
white  descent  in  Latin  American  society  are  in  actuality 
too  large,  and  must  be  regarded  as  the  expression  of  an 
ideal  rather  than  of  a  fact. 

The  character  of  the  ruling  classes  of  the  Latin  American 
people,  formed  by  the  whites  and  better  class  mestizos  must, 
taken  as  a  whole,  be  regarded  as  a  complex  one,  with  pro- 
nounced virtues  and  defects.  There  is  no  other  race  answer- 
ing exactly  to  their  characteristics.  They  are  a  people  full  of 
imagination,  creatures  of  impulse,  moved  by  sentiment  and 
easily  stirred  to  love  or  hate,  both  of  which  extremes  are 
generally  short  lived.     Their  ideals  are  high,  but  in  practice 


GENERAL  PHYSICAL  AND  SOCIAL  CONDITIONS    19 

they  easily  descend  to  tortuous  methods,  and  the  opportunist 
side  of  their  character  is  much  in  evidence.  The  rights  of 
man,  of  "hberty  and  equahty,"  phrases  enthusiastically 
borrowed  from  their  French  social  model,  are  words  of  every- 
day utterance,  but  political  and  class  oppression,  and,  in 
times  of  stress,  vengeance  and  assassination,  are  common 
incidents  of  republican  life.  Charming  in  their  hospitality 
and  urbane  courtesy,  and  in  all  things  that  pertain  to  the 
social  world  of  poUte  amenity,  they  lack  the  stricter  regard 
for  word  and  bond  in  political  and  commercial  matters  of 
the  Anglo-Saxon  people,  and  by  sheer  force  of  words  at 
times  tliink  to  turn  chicanery  into  truth.  Law,  order,  and 
progress  are  terms  greatly  promulgated  on  every  occasion 
which  gives  opportunity  for  the  impassioned  eloquence  for 
which  the  Latin  American  is  justly  famous,  and  are  matters 
which,  theoretically,  he  has  at  heart  ;  but  in  practice  they 
too  often  tend  to  become  empty  catchwords,  flung  to  the 
public  by  enthusiastic  orators  or  office-seeking  politicians. 
The  advent  of  each  new  president  or  dictator  is  generally 
hailed  as  a  "  new  era,"  in  terms  of  semi-delirious  exuberance, 
but  the  words  have  scarcel}^  died  away  before  the  old  order 
of  self-seeking  and  political  corruption  settles  around  the 
life  of  the  community  again.  The  Latin  Americans  are  a 
people  of  sudden  changes.  An  urbane  senate,  steeped  in 
high-sounding  phrases  and  proposals  for  well  meant  legisla- 
tion, controlled  by  a  distinguished  president  and  dignified 
cabinet  ministers,  gives  place,  by  a  seemingly  inexpHcable 
turn  of  affairs,  to  a  clatter  of  mule-batteries  on  the  pavement 
and  a  shower  of  rifle  bullets,  followed  by  vengeance,  blood- 
shed, and  imprisonment,  with  the  dead  lying  in  the  plaza 
among  the  palms  and  fountains,  and  the  lamentations  of 
their  women.  Under  a  smooth  urbane  exterior  the  Latin 
American  conceals  certain  feline  qualities,  capable  of  per- 
petrating cruelties  such  as  it  might  have  been  supposed  would 
be  impossible  in  view  of  the  very  considerable  pretension  to 
civilisation  to  which  the  Latin  American  republics  lay 
claim.  Human  life  is  held  cheap,  a  condition  inherited 
partly  from  the  bloody  religious  practices  of  the  Aztecs 
before  the  Conquest  and  constant  internecine  conflict,  and 


20  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

partly  from  the  Spaniard.  Secret  torture  in  prisons, 
whether  for  personal  vengeance  or  whether  for  the  purposes 
of  inducing  confession  by  criminals,  is  common.  The 
excesses  in  times  of  revolution,  and  the  political  murders 
which  take  place  with  such  frequency  in  South  and  Central 
America  and  Mexico  are  some  of  the  most  terrible  features 
of  misgovernment.  The  constant  plunging  of  the  communi- 
ties into  civil  war,  and  the  sacrificing  of  the  working  popula- 
tion as  "  food  for  powder,"  constantly  works  ruin  upon  the 
industries  and  development  of  the  Latin  American  republics. 
The  history  of  these  countries,  since  the  time  of  independ- 
ence, is  made  up  of  such  struggles. 

The  complex  character  of  the  Latin  American  people 
is  partly  explained  by  the  variety  of  races  embodied  in  the 
Spaniard,  in  whose  veins  flows  the  blood  of  Celts,  Goths 
Moors,  Romans,  Semites,  Vandals,  and  others,  which  he 
has  mingled  with  that  of  the  American  Indian.  But  the 
Spanish  origin  does  not  alone  explain  the  latent  feline 
character.  There  are  certain  well-marked  "  Oriental  "  traits 
about  the  Latin  American.  The  blood-guiltiness  of  the 
Asiatic,  the  wiles  of  the  Oriental  generally,  with  his  suavity 
and  seeming  benevolence  in  repose,  and  the  cruelty  and 
heartlessness,  as  of  the  Russian  and  the  Tartar,  seem  to  in- 
fluence or  break  out  at  times  in  the  character  of  the  Mexi- 
can, Peruvian,  Brazilian,  Chilean  and  other  Latin  Americans, 
as  if  they  owed  something  in  their  composition  to  Oriental 
stock.  If  the  theory  be  true  that  America  in  prehistoric 
times  was  peopled  by  Tartars  or  Mongolians,  and  other  Asiatic 
races,  such  qualities  may  have  been  transmitted  in  that  way. 
Both  in  their  physiognomies  and  their  mental  characteristics 
the  Latin  American  people,  as  regards  the  mestizos  and  the 
Indians,  exhibit  Oriental  traits  ;  and  it  might  almost  be 
said  of  them,  as  it  was  of  the  Russian,  that  to  scratch  a 
Latin  American  is  to  disclose  a  Tartar  ! 

The  better  and  normal  side  of  the  Latin  American  char- 
acter reveals  sound  qualities  which  call  for  full  recognition. 
There  are  certain  elements  in  Latin  American  civilisation 
which  are  superior  to  those  of  Anglo-America,  as  represented 
b}'  the  United  States  and  Canada,  and  which  may  be  of 


GENERAL  PHYSICAL  AND  SOCIAL  CONDITIONS    21 

great  value  in  moulding  the  future  of  the  American  demo- 
cracies. The  strong  ideals  of  art  and  oratory,  and  the  pride 
of  refinement  and  courtesy  which  are  displayed,  together 
with  the  refusal  to  be  dominated  by  the  too  commercialistic 
spirit  such  as  influences  their  northern  neighbours,  mark 
out  the  meridional  inhabitants  of  the  New  World  as  a  more 
imaginative  and  less  material-minded  people.  To  be  a 
caballero,  a  gentleman,  at  least  in  outward  form,  is  a  racial 
ideal.  From  the  highest  to  the  lowest,  courtesy  is  a  native 
characteristic,  indicative  of  a  neighbourly  quality,  and  in 
general  demeanour  there  is  a  stronger  sense  of  respect  for 
the  individual  than  in  such  communities,  for  example,  as 
the  United  States.  In  Mexico  or  Peru  the  poorest  peon 
is  a  gentleman  in  his  deportment  towards  others,  and  towards 
things  which  merit  reverence.  The  crimes  due  to  political 
differences  which,  in  Latin  America,  break  out  into  blood- 
shed, are  not,  in  a  sense,  worse  than  the  crimes  of  the  modern 
highwayman,  the  train- wrecker,  and  the  bank-robber,  as 
well  as  the  terrible  vendettas,  of  the  United  States.  The 
Latin  American  people  lack  the  stable  self-governing  qualities 
of  the  Anglo-Americans,  whilst  the  latter  are  wanting  in 
the  idealistic  qualities  of  their  southern  neighbours  ;  but 
each  has  something  the  other  lacks,  some  necessary  element 
of  social  life,  and  both  races  can,  with  advantage,  learn  and 
borrow  much  from  each  other. 

The  women  of  Latin  America  are  far  less  advanced  in 
social  freedom  than  their  northern  sisters.  They  have 
scarcely  begun  to  emerge  from  the  rigid  seclusion  of  the 
home,  which  the  imported  customs  of  Spain  inculcated. 
Their  emancipation  is  hampered  by  the  general  attitude 
of  their  male  kind  towards  them,  which  must  be  modified 
if  progress  is  to  be  attained.  The  position  of  woman  in  Latin 
America  is  a  difficult  one.  Her  seclusion  partakes  of  feudal 
times,  and  is  almost  Moorish  or  Oriental  in  character.  She 
rarely  appears  in  public  without  escort,  and,  stated  brutally, 
it  may  be  said  that  the  Latin  American  woman  is  only  just 
learning  that  she  may  venture  out  alone  without  fear  of 
violation — an  attitude  not  unwarrantable  in  view  of  the 
history  and  character  of  the  Spanish-speaking  people.     The 


33  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

relations  between  the  sexes  partake  in  large  degree  of  the 
romantic  and  the  licentious,  as  far  as  the  younger  element 
of  society  is  concerned  ;  and  the  frank  intercourse  and  com- 
radeship between  them,  as  among  northern  nations,  is 
unknown.  This  is  partly  a  result  of  national  temperament, 
and  partly  the  inheritance  of  the  Spaniard,  who  in  earlier 
times  gave  free  rein  to  his  passions  among  the  native  women, 
and  whose  sense  of  delicacy  and  chivalry  where  woman  is 
concerned,  although  of  greater  pretension,  is  in  reality  far 
less  developed  than  that  of  the  man  of  northern  Europe. 
The  Latin  American  wom.an  is  not  licentious  by  nature, 
but  her  affections  are  strong.  After  marriage  the  love  of 
home  is  a  marked  feature  of  her  disposition,  and  the  care 
of  her  children  the  principal  object  of  her  life.  She  is  generally 
of  an  attractive  type,  physically,  and  often  so  mentally  ; 
vigorous  and  prolific  ;  and  no  race  can  fail  whose  mothers 
and  wives  have  the  attributes  of  the  women  of  Spanish  and 
Portuguese  America.  Whether  among  the  upper  classes 
or  whether  among  the  poor  and  unlettered,  it  is  noteworthy 
that  the  vulgar  type  of  woman  is  not  produced  by  the  Latin 
American  civilisation  to  the  same  extent  as  among  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  or  Anglo-American  people.  The  upper  class  are 
refined  and  distinguished  in  speech  and  bearing,  and  the 
lower  respectful  and  modest.  The  young  lady  of  the  upper 
class  of  Latin  American  society  has  earned  a  deserved 
reputation  for  her  attractive  appearance  and  for  her  vivacity 
and  intelligence.  The  dark,  expressive  eyes  and  wealth 
of  hair  are  inherited  both  from  her  Spanish  and  aboriginal 
ancestry.  A  figure  slender  and  well  formed  tends,  after 
middle  age,  to  stoutness,  a  result  partly  of  the  Indian  race 
in  her  composition,  but  largely  to  the  lack  of  outdoor 
exercise  and  attention  to  other  hygienic  matters.  More 
enlightened  conditions  of  life  in  this  respect  would  ensure 
for  her  the  same  improvement  physically  that  has  been 
attained  by  the  British  or  North  American  girl.  The 
romantic  and  pleasing  appearance  of  the  Spanish  American 
maiden  has  for  its  background  the  quaint  architecture  of 
those  southern  lands  ;  and  the  mild  climate  and  marked 
social  distinctions  invest  daily  life  with  more  of  a  peaceful 


GENERAL  PHYSICAL  AND  SOCIAL  CONDITIONS    23 

or  languorous  atmosphere  than  obtains  among  the  industrial 
nations.  The  intermarriage  of  British  and  other  Europeans, 
and  of  Americans  from  the  United  States  with  Latin  Ameri- 
can women,  is  an  increasing  condition  resulting  from  growing 
intercourse  due  to  the  advance  of  commerce  and  colonisation. 
The  condition  leaves  little  to  be  desired,  and  is  likely  to 
increase. 

A  notable  condition  of  Latin  American  family  life,  which 
may  prove  of  much  importance  in  the  future,  is  the  absence 
of  neo-Malthusian  ideas,  or  the  practice  of  "  race  suicide." 
The  Latin  American  mother  has  not  learned  to  limit  the 
number  of  her  family.  When  her  own  romance  of  courtship 
and  marriage  is  over  she  regards  herself  as  a  medium  for 
the  advancement  of  a  more  or  less  numerous  progeny,  and 
has  no  hesitation  in  sacrilicing  her  own  amenities  to  the 
welfare  of  the  coming  generation,  as  represented  by  her  own 
children.  She  has  indeed  been  reproached  at  times  with 
retiring  too  much  into  obscurity  as  the  new  generation  comes 
forward,  and  in  failing  to  resist,  as  has  been  more  or  less 
successfully  done  by  her  European  and  North  American 
sisters,  the  effects  of  advancing  middle  age.  The  refusal 
to  practise  the  limitation  of  child-bearing  is  the  result 
largely  of  the  influence  of  the  Roman  Catholic  religion, 
which  retains  a  strong  hold  of  the  sex  in  those  lands.  This 
characteristic  of  family  life,  if  continued,  must  in  the 
future  have  a  marked  effect  on  the  growth  of  the  population  ; 
and  the  seclusion  and  deportment  amid  which  it  flourishes 
are  not  likely  yet  to  be  too  rudely  disturbed. 

On  the  other  hand,  a  too  rigid  seclusion  of  the  sex  will 
retard  social  progress.  At  the  present  time  woman  in  the 
Latin  American  communities  takes  little  part  in  civic, 
commercial,  or  scientific  life.  In  those  instances  where 
she  does  engage  in  such,  she  evinces  a  strong  capacity  for 
protecting  her  own  or  her  husband's  interests.  Probably 
the  emancipation  of  woman  in  Latin  America  might  bring 
about  a  more  rapid  trend  of  social  and  economic  progress 
in  what  is,  so  far,  an  entirely  man-controlled  regimen. 
Doubtless,  as  time  goes  on,  the  Latin  American  woman  will 
not  be  content    with  her  role  of  a  passive  agent,  but  will 


24  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH  AMERICA 

awaken  to  the  necessity  for  playing  that  part  in  rectifying 
the  serious  social  disorders  of  life  which  is  now  being  entered 
upon  by  her  sisters  of  Great  Britain  and  other  nations,  and 
from  which  much  is  to  be  expected. 

It  cannot  be  said  that  as  a  whole  the  Latin  American 
people  are  of  a  fine  type  physically.  There  are,  in  the  more 
pronounced  white  race,  men  of  the  good  stature  and  features 
and  distinguished  presence  which  are  commonly  encountered 
in  the  European ;  but  the  Indian  blood  in  the  mass 
of  the  people  has  shortened  and  slightened  the  figure. 
The  undersized  mestizo  type  predominates.  He  is  agile 
and  quick-witted,  but  his  countenance  is  not,  from  the 
European  point  of  view,  generally  reflective  of  power  or 
dignity.  The  pure  Indian  sometimes  appears  larger  of  stature 
than  the  mestizo.  It  is  not  to  be  argued  that  mere  size 
is  an  advantage,  but  in  the  Latin  American  male  the  lesser 
physical  stamina  seems  to  have  given  rise — possibly  as  a 
measure  of  compensation  of  a  sort- — to  an  excess  of  "  smart- 
ness." He  is  "  vivo,"  as  the  Spanish  word  has  it.  It  is 
notable  among  the  Latin  American  race  that  the  women 
are  as  a  rule  of  more  pleasing  features  than  their  men.  Nature 
has  been  kinder  to  the  woman  of  mixed  white  and  brown 
race  than  to  the  man.  The  attitude  of  the  mestizo  towards 
the  Indian  is  curious.  It  might  have  been  supposed  that 
the  man  of  mixed  race  would  have  regarded  the  Indian  with 
affection  and  a  desire  to  better  him.  Flesh  of  his  flesh,  he 
should  not  have  been  prone  to  despise  or  ill-treat  him.  Yet 
the  typical  Brazilian,  Peruvian,  or  Mexican  is  more  callous 
towards  the  Indian  than  is  the  white  man.  Notwithstanding 
that,  from  president  and  cabinet  minister  downward,  the 
Indian  woman  has  been  the  mother  of  the  race — for  very 
few  women  from  Spain  entered  the  New  World — the 
Indians  are  regarded  as  a  raza  conquistada  or  conquered 
race,  standing  apart,  and  have  been,  and  still  are,  subject 
to  negligence  or  oppression  by  the  mestizo  class.  Naturally 
in  this  attitude  there  is  something  of  race- jealousy — the 
yearning  for  the  white  skin,  as  before  remarked. 

The  economic  development  of  the  Latin  American 
countries,    in    comparison    with    their    neighbours    of    the 


GENERAL  PHYSICAL  AND  SOCIAL  CONDITIONS    25 

United  States  and  Canada,  has  been  of  slow  growth,  notwith- 
standing that  they  were  in  some  cases  strongly  established 
at  a  much  earlier  date.  In  the  viceregal  centres  of  Mexico 
and  Peru,  and  to  a  lesser  degree  in  the  outlying  territories, 
populous  cities,  endowed  with  Royal  Charters,  had  grown 
to  being  long  before  the  founding  of  the  New  England 
colonies  or  the  sailing  of  the  Mayflower.  This  slow  develop- 
ment was  due  both  to  physical  and  political  conditions. 
The  jealous  restrictions  placed  by  Spain  and  Portugal  upon 
their  colonies  prevented  the  expansion  of  commerce  and 
the  opening  up  of  the  territories  for  several  centuries. 
When  those  were  removed,  topographical  and  climatic 
conditions  seemed  to  interpose  serious  obstacles  against 
settlement  and  colonisation,  added  to  the  political  unrest 
and  the  lax  or  arbitrary  administration  of  law  which  has 
characterised  the  republican  form  of  government  of  the 
Latin  American  States.  The  profitable  exploitation  of  the 
soil  could  not  be  carried  on  by  individual  pioneers  in  a  way 
such  as  laid  the  basis  of  North  American  prosperity.  Natural 
surroundings  are  more  stupendous  in  the  Southern  conti- 
nent, and  the  effects  of  climate  less  easy  to  combat.  The 
waggon  of  the  pioneer  could  not  easily  have  traversed  the 
dense  forests  or  surmounted  the  enormous  mountain  ranges 
of  Latin  America,  as  it  did  in  the  early  days  of  the  United 
States  ;  nor  was  the  character  of  the  colonising  people  of 
the  resolute  and  plodding  nature  necessary  to  overcome  such 
obstacles.  The  Spanish  Conquistadores  performed  prodigies 
of  valour  and  were  among  the  most  intrepid  explorers  in  the 
world,  but  they  were  impatient  of  the  surer,  if  slower, 
methods  of  development  which  characterised  the  Anglo- 
Saxon.  They  encountered  a  menial  race  which  performed 
all  manual  labour  for  them,  and,  in  the  long  run,  the  fabulous 
wealth  of  Mexican  and  Peruvian  mines  proved  of  less  account 
than  the  corn-lands  and  the  forests  and  iron  mines  of  North 
America. 

It  is  only  of  very  recent  years  that  these  conditions  have 
begun  to  yield  to  the  exigencies  of  modern  enterprise.  A 
land  already  occupied  by  a  more  or  less  servile  population 
did  not  offer  a  field  for  the  independent  settler,  with  his 


26  CENTRAL   AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

homestead  and  log  cabin.  Nor  did  its  people  or  their  riihng 
class  possess  the  mechanical  genius  of  the  Northern  Ameri- 
cans, which,  of  itself,  without  aid  from  the  outside,  would 
have  ensured  progress.  The  Latin  American  countries 
have  been  in  the  somewhat  unfortunate  position  of  depen- 
dents upon  foreign  capital  and  initiative  for  the  construction 
of  their  public  works.  The  capitalists  of  their  own  race 
have  generally  been  too  niggardly  and  lacking  in  forethought 
to  do  more  than  absorb  the  values  of  the  soil  immediately 
around  them.  Methodical  organisation  and  joint-stock 
enterprise  were  borrowed  from  abroad.  To  work  for  to- 
morrow was  foreign  to  the  Latin  American  character,  and 
the  dollar  expended  without  immediate  return  was  regarded 
as  lost.  A  people  which  has  neither  the  energy  to  build 
ordinary  roads,  nor  possessed  the  power  of  evolving  the 
railway,  is  doomed  to  pass  through  a  phase  of  commercial 
conquest,  and  to  suffer  from  the  rapacity  of,  as  well  as  the 
benefits  resulting  from,  the  operations  of  the  foreign  con- 
cessionaire. The  alien  railway-builder  and  mine  owner 
has  been  the  agent  destined  to  av/aken  the  industrial  apathy 
of  the  Latin  American  world,  and  is  covering  the  land  with 
his  works — operations  which  it  cannot  be  said  yield  the 
maximum  of  benefit  to  the  working  people  of  the  soil.  To 
labour  for  the  production  of  dividends  for  alien  shareholders 
may  be  a  necessity  of  the  immediate  present,  but  it 
is  not  a  condition  which  will  retain  pre-eminence  when 
the  true  spirit  of  industry-planning  develops,  such  as  has 
yet  to  engage  the  attention  of  all  nations,  but  which  lags 
grievously  in  Latin  America. 

Commonly  there  is  considerable  misapprehension  con- 
cerning the  native  labourers  of  Latin  America.  They  have 
often  been  regarded  as  indolent  and  of  but  little  use  in  the 
development  of  modern  industry.  But  experience  of  the 
native  races  and  an  unbiassed  view  shew  that  this 
reputation  is  undeserved.  It  is  true  that  the  Indian  or  the 
mestizo  will  not  perform,  to  fixed  hours  of  labour,  the  routine 
of  work  to  which  the  European  or  Anglo-American  is  accus- 
tomed, and  that  this  failing  may  make  him  the  despair  of 
the   plantation   overseer   or   mine   manager   from   abroad. 


GENERAL  PHYSICAL  AND  SOCIAL  CONDITIONS    27 

But  this  is  not  necessarily  or  entirely  a  defect.  Regarded 
in  the  more  modern  light  of  development  it  may  mean 
an  independence  of  spirit  and  a  refusal  to  be  hidebound 
by  commercial  domination.  It  is  not  that  the  native  is 
incapable  of  work.  The  miner  of  Mexico,  Peru,  and  Chile 
carries  on,  and  has  carried  on  for  centuries,  mining  labour 
of  so  hard  and  dangerous  a  character  as  is  not  surpassed  in 
any  part  of  the  world  ;  no  place  has  been  inaccessible  to 
him,  and  the  result  of  his  labours  is  encountered  over 
thousands  of  miles  of  the  highest  and  bleakest  mining 
regions  upon  the  globe.  The  agricultural  labourer,  the  peon, 
the  Cholo,  and  others  born  to  till  the  soil  of  the  New  World 
are,  in  some  cases,  the  hardest  and  most  industrious  of 
their  calling,  working,  moreover,  from  sunrise  to  sunset  upon 
a  diet  such  as  the  meanest  labourer  of  Britain  or  the  United 
States  would  not  tolerate.  The  peons  of  Mexico,  the  Cholos 
of  Peru,  and  the  labourers  on  Bva.zi\ia.n  fazendas  are  veritable 
marvels  in  the  performance  of  manual  labour  upon  a  diet 
of  beans,  maize,  rice,  chillies  or  pepper-pods,  and  kindred 
matters.  Furthermore,  they  have  a  natural  aversion  to 
work  in  workshops,  and  as  a  class  will  not  leave  their  sunlit 
plantations  for  the  gloomy  interior  of  the  factory. 

The  natives  of  Mexico  and  South  America  at  times  per- 
form prodigies  of  work  in  what  may  be  described  as  the 
manner  of  ants  ;  that  is,  by  dint  of  numbers  and  patience  ; 
and  in  some  cases  this  is  true  of  the  women  as  well  as  the 
men.  Railways  have  been  built  and  canals  dug  by  hosts 
of  Indians  bearing  baskets  of  earth,  and  by  women  carrying 
earth  into  place  in  their  shawls.  In  excavating  the  banks 
of  the  great  drainage  canal  for  the  city  of  Mexico  a  few 
years  ago — work  which  was  carried  out  by  a  British  firm — 
much  of  the  earth  was  removed  by  labourers  with  baskets, 
which  method  was  found  to  give  more  economical  results  than 
machinery.  In  Bolivia  the  first  railways  were  built  in  this 
way,  the  soil  being  removed  by  a  ceaseless  stream  of  Indians, 
men  and  women,  who  carried  out  the  earth  in  baskets,  or  in 
their  ponchos,  and  banked  it  up  where  required.  Earning 
only  thirty  or  forty  cents  a  day,  equal  to  eightpence  or 
tenpence,  these  primitive  labourers  move  large  masses  of 


28  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH  AMERICA 

material,  somewhat  after  the  manner  of  the  ancient  Egyp- 
tians, whom  they  resemble  in  various  ways.  These  and 
similar  conditions  exist,  of  course,  because  so  large  a  part 
of  the  population  is  available  by  reason  of  its  poverty,  and 
willing  to  perform  menial  operations  for  an  almost  nominal 
wage.  In  all  Spanish  American  cities  the  occupation  of 
porterage,  for  example,  affords  a  living  to  numbers  of 
Indians.  If  it  be  required  to  remove  furniture  or  goods 
from  one  house  or  shop  to  another,  the  sight  may  be  witnessed 
of  a  long  file  of  native  porters,  each  bearing  a  separate 
article,  in  single  file  along  the  streets  :  pieces  of  crockery, 
chairs,  books,  and  other  matters,  in  an  incongruous-appearing 
procession.  The  extreme  care  they  display  in  handling  any 
object  is  worthy  of  remark.  An  Indian  never  breaks  any- 
thing :  whether  it  be  a  piece  of  crockery  worth  a  few  cents, 
or  a  valuable  scientific  instrument,  he  transports  it  from 
place  to  place  without  accident.  This  characteristic  is 
derived  both  from  his  native  disposition  and  from  his  habitual 
poverty,  which  tends  to  enhance  the  value  of  any  article. 
It  is  a  general  notion  that  the  Indian  of  Latin  America 
lacks  honesty,  and  will  pilfer  wherever  opportunity  occurs  ; 
but  this  is  often  erroneous  :  the  Indian  is  by  nature  honest. 
Among  the  ancient  Peruvians  and  Mexicans  honesty  was 
a  common  and  natural  virtue,  and  even  the  less  civilised 
tribes  generally  respected  each  other's  individual  property. 
It  is  the  half-breed  whose  ideas  in  this  respect  are  light. 
The  Indian  in  South  America  or  Mexico  will  generally  take 
adequate  care  of  anything  entrusted  to  him,  or,  in  the 
absence  of  his  master,  is  scrupulous  as  to  appropriating  the 
latter's  effects. 

The  charge  has  always  been  preferred  against  the 
Spaniards  and  Portuguese  that  they  grievously  oppressed 
the  Indians  of  America,  and  that,  had  it  not  been  for 
cohabitation  and  intermarriage,  their  methods  would  have 
been  conducive  to  extermination  of  the  native  races  ;  and 
the  charge  forms  one  of  the  most  serious  indictments  against 
the  greedy  and  heartless  commercialism  of  Europe  in  Latin 
America,  whose  latest  chapter  was  recently  written  in  the 
terrible  annals  of  the  rubber  industry  upon  the  Peruvian 


GENERAL  PHYSICAL  AND  SOCIAL  CONDITIONS    29 

Amazon.  In  Mexico  and  Peru,  and  elsewhere  under  the 
Spanish  conquerors,  the  natives  were  subjected  to  the  slavery 
of  the  Encomienda  system,  under  which  they  were  forced 
to  work  without  pay,  and  often  under  the  lash,  for  the  land- 
holders, the  Church,  and  the  governmental  authorities, 
driven  into  the  mines  by  armed  guards  and  even  branded 
on  the  face.  When  their  strength  failed,  as  it  did  rapidly 
under  the  onerous  conditions  of  their  toil,  their  miserable 
carcases  were  pitched  aside  to  make  room  for  others.  The 
natural  contempt  of  the  Spaniards  for  manual  work  was 
augmented  by  the  Ley  dc  Indias  or  Indian  Law,  enacted  in 
Madrid,  decreeing  that  "  Gentlemen  must  not  mix  with 
traders  and  sellers  of  merchandise."  The  work  the  Indian 
was  forced  to  perform  was  greater  than  his  physical  capacity 
allowed,  especially  in  view  of  the  wretched  conditions  of 
his  life  ;  and  the  result  was  destruction  of  the  population. 

The  ill-treatment  of  the  natives  has  by  no  means  been  a 
monopoly  of  colonial  days.  The  ruling  and  propertied  classes 
of  the  Latin  American  communities,  since  the  Spanish  and 
Portuguese  control  was  cast  off,  have  exploited  the  labouring 
classes  and  Indians  with  almost  equal  rigour,  and  in  some 
cases  with  similarly  cruel  methods  :  and  these  have  been 
especially  marked  in  IMexico  and  Peru,  the  two  seats  of  the 
old  viceregal  governments.  The  terrible  barbarities  accom- 
panying the  business  of  rubber-getting  in  Peru  and  Bolivia 
have  become  notorious,  as  have  the  abuses  practised  in 
Mexico  upon  the  Yaqui  Indians  and  upon  the  natives  of 
Yucatan.  The  treatment  of  the  aboriginal  class  by  the 
mestizo  and  white  classes  of  Latin  America  may  well  serve 
to  shew  how  the  terms  "  democracy  "  and  "  republic  "  may 
become  a  mere  mockery,  and  are  often  little  more  than 
tyranny  thinly  disguised.  It  might  have  been  supposed 
that  the  mestizo  class,  drawing  more  than  half  its  being 
from  the  Indian  race,  would  have  endeavoured  to  uplift 
the  Indian.  Instead  of  this,  the  poor,  unlettered  aboriginal 
race  has  been  both  exploited  and  neglected.  This  is  especi- 
all}'^  marked  in  the  Andean  countries,  such  as  Peru,  Bolivia, 
Colombia,  and  Ecuador.  The  pett}^  authorities  of  the  villages 
are  mestizos,  as  are  the  officers  of  the  dilapidated  soldiery  who 


30  CENTRAL   AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

may  be  quartered  in  the  towns,  as  well  as  the  owners  of  the 
best  lands  and  mines,  and  the  petty  shopkeepers.  By  all 
these  the  Indian  is  looked  upon  as  a  more  or  less  stupid 
menial,  whose  work  may  be  exploited  for  their  benefit. 
The  whole  condition  of  labour  throughout  the  Latin  Ameri- 
can countries  calls  urgently  for  reform. 

The  Indian,  for  his  part,  has  vices  which  keep  him  back- 
ward, the  greatest  of  which  is  his  abuse  of  alcohol ;  and  the 
lower  class  mestizo  shares  equally  in  the  defect.  In  Mexico 
and  the  western  part  of  South  America  the  condition  is 
especially  marked,  but  the  excesses  brought  about  by  the 
misuse  of  the  old  national  drinks,  the  pulque  of  Mexico, 
made  from  the  maguey,  and  the  chicha  or  maize-beer  of 
Peru,  which  are  very  largely  consumed,  are  far  less 
serious  than  those  induced  by  the  fiery  alcohol,  or 
aguardiente,  resulting  from  the  manufacture  of  sugar.  The 
making  of  this  crude  rum  is  often  more  profitable  than  the 
sugar,  and  a  large  trade  is  done  in  the  sale  of  the  liquor  to 
the  Indians  ;  and  if  the  aboriginal  race  of  Latin  America 
dies  off  it  will  be  largely  due  to  the  introduction  of  the  white 
man's  alcohol.  Attention  is  constantly  being  drawn  to  the 
evil  by  zealous  senators  and  deputies  in  the  various  con- 
gresses or  Parliaments,  but  as  the  law-makers  and  authori- 
ties are  also  the  large  landowners  and  sugar  manufacturers 
it  follows  that  beneficial  legislation  is  of  slow  growth. 
Disinterested  effort  is  generally  short-lived  in  these  com- 
munities, either  bribery  or  intimidation  soon  silencing  the 
reformer,  who  indeed  has  too  often  raised  his  voice  in  the 
expectation  of  reaping  some  personal  advantage. 

The  abuse  and  neglect  of  the  Indians  in  Latin  America 
is  so  notorious  as  almost  to  have  become  a  commonplace, 
but  it  is  a  suicidal  policy  as  concerns  the  peopling  of  a  great 
part  of  the  territory,  for  in  certain  regions  no  race  could 
replace  them.  Throughout  the  thousands  of  miles  of  the 
lofty  Andean  uplands  and  mineral-bearing  districts  no  worker, 
except  the  native  Cholo  or  Indian,  can  carr}^  on  manual 
labour  in  field  or  mine.  The  conditions  of  rarefied  air,  due 
to  elevation,  render  the  ordinary  European  or  Asiatic  of 
little    use :     and    if    the    aboriginal    Peruvians,    Bolivians, 


Under  2 
2  to  25 
25  "  60 
60  ■■  125 
125  ■■  250 
"^Over     250 

To«>nsnithover\QQ!XO 
inhabitants      • 


100        90      80    Long-W.60ofGr       40      30       20 


"GE.OGKAPHIA ■■  CP-  55  FLE£T  STRUT.  LONDON ,  FC4 


GENERAL  PHYSICAL  AND  SOCIAL  CONDITIONS  31 

Ecuadorians,  Colombians  and  others  are  to  decrease,  these 
lofty  but  valuable  regions  will  become  uninhabited  deserts. 
Similarly  will  the  great  Amazon  valley  be  reduced  to  an 
unpeopled  wilderness  if  the  oppression  of  the  forest  Indians 
continues.  The  destruction  of  the  population,  brought  about 
by  the  ruthless  forced  labour  systems  of  the  Spaniards  in 
colonial  times,  is  being  carried  on  in  a  lesser  degree  in  South 
America  by  the  heavy  death  rate  resulting  from  the  acute 
poverty  and  insanitary  conditions  of  life  among  the  Indians 
of  the  Andean  uplands  at  the  present  time,  aided  by  the 
abuse  of  alcohol,  upon  whose  sale  governments  and  land- 
owners make  a  profit.  Nothing  can  be  more  regrettable  than 
the  degradation  and  poverty  of  these  descendants  of  the  once 
well-ordered  Inca  community,  whose  rulers,  with  the  gov- 
erning instinct  which  was  so  remarkable  a  feature  of  the 
Incas,  maintained  a  beneficial  civilisation,  which  the  modern 
Peruvians  and  other  Andean  people,  exponents  of  Christ- 
ianity, make  little  effort  to  imitate. 

In  none  of  the  Latm  American  repubhcs  are  there  special 
or  adequate  laws  for  the  protection  of  ordinary  labour  : 
except  that  forced  labour  is  prohibited  ;  and  even  that 
ordinance  is  often  abused,  and  does  not  apply  to  the 
"savages  "  of  the  forests  at  all.  On  the  plantation,  or  in 
the  factory  and  the  mine,  the  employer  and  the  capitalist  prac- 
tically dispose  of  the  workers,  without  let  or  hindrance,  as 
best  suits  themselves.  Even  in  such  countries  as  Argentina 
and  Brazil,  whose  enormous  agricultural  wealth  and  output 
depend  upon  the  humble  worker,  there  are  no  laws  for  the 
protection  of  agricultural  labour  worthy  of  the  name, 
whilst  peonage  is  the  not  uncommon  condition.  As  regards 
the  women  of  the  lower  classes  in  the  country  districts  of 
South  America  or  Mexico,  conditions  are  little  altered  since 
the  time  when  the  Spaniards  worked  their  will  upon  them ; 
and  the  native  or  peon  woman  has  little  protection  from  those 
above  her,  except  as  she  may  personally  guard  her  rights. 
The  conditions  of  life  in  the  haciendas  or  in  the  villages  in 
this  respect  often  shew  the  native  woman  to  be  more  or 
less  of  a  chattel  to  her  employer  or  his  dependents.  It  is 
not  that  she  is  immoral,  but  that  the  man  of  Spanish  or 


32  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

mestizo  blood  is  unscrupulous,  and  has  little  notion  of  the 
honour  of  the  women  of  a  class  below  him.  The  Latin 
American  youth,  indeed,  considers  any  unprotected  woman 
a  fit  subject  for  his  amours,  and  the  condition  in  this  re- 
spect in  such  cities  as  Buenos  Ayres  and  other  capitals  is 
a  constant  reproach  to  Latin  American  civilisation.  No 
foreign  or  unprotected  girl  could  yet  make  her  home  or  live 
independently  in  such  communities. 

The  political  difficulties  of  the  Latin  American  nations, 
so  much  in  evidence  generally,  and  their  backward  socio- 
logical conditions  as  revealed  to  the  traveller,  cannot  be 
ascribed  to  their  form  of  government ;  for  as  far  as  statutes 
and  theories  are  concerned  these  are  excellent.  The  working 
of  an  American  republic,  on  paper,  has  been  highly  special- 
ised, and  the  Latin  American  constitutions  are,  theoreti- 
cally, almost  "  counsels  of  perfection."  It  is  in  the  applica- 
tion of  theory  to  practice  and  statute  to  common  deport- 
ment that  failure  in  self-government  has  so  frequently  been 
due.  The  man  of  Spanish  race  makes  excellent  laws  for 
the  community,  but  often  appears  to  reserve  the  right  to 
contravene  them  himself :  and  this  results  from  his  strong 
individualistic  character. 

The  constitutions  and  governing  powers  of  the  eighteen 
republics  are  more  or  less  similar  throughout  Latin  America 
generally.  They  are  largely  founded  upon  the  model  of  the 
United  States,  with  individual  variations  dictated  by  the 
circumstances  of  each  nation,  and  the  conditions  under 
which  they  were  drawn  up.  These  written  constitutions 
are  subscribed  with  all  the  solemnity  of  a  decalogue,  and 
may  not  be  transgressed  in  the  most  minute  particular.  The 
high  purpose  aimed  at  is  set  forth  in  impressive  language, 
in  which  Divine  approval  is  invoked,  followed  by  a  full 
Declaration  of  Rights,  in  which  the  scope  of  the  law  is  very 
fully  defined.  A  high  ideal  of  justice  and  liberty  runs 
throughout  these  documents,  and  an  impressive  ardour  for 
righteous  collective  action  which,  were  they  borne  out  in 
practice,  would  insure  for  mankind  a  real  step  forward  in 
civilisation.  Apart  from  these  matters  they  do  not  embody 
any  new  constructive  principle,  nor  recognise  specially  the 


GENERAL  PHYSICAL  AND  SOCIAL  CONDITIONS    33 

duty  of  the  community  affirmatively  towards  the  individual, 
such  as  the  future  will  require  :  nor  is  it  to  be  expected  that 
they  could  do  so,  having  been  evolved  solely  from  the 
ordinary  tenets  of  community  life  of  Europe  and  North 
America,  which  themselves  are  only  now  awakening  to  an 
advanced  conception  of  democratic  rights.  These  consti- 
tutions, moreover,  whilst  they  are  set  down  theoretically  as 
permanent,  do  not  follow  their  model  of  the  United  States 
in  that  respect,  for  they  are  at  times  modified,  and  even 
swept  away  and  replaced  by  successive  administrations. 
Among  some  of  the  less  responsible  republics  the  making  of 
constitutions  has  been  excessively  frequent,  and  a  source 
of  occupation  for  revolutionary  generals  and  lawyers. 

The  various  republics,  as  regards  their  governing  systems, 
may  be  divided  into  two  kinds  :  Federal  republics  and  Cen- 
tralised republics.  The  first  follow  more  closely  the  United 
States  model  in  being  a  federation  of  states,  under  which 
the  various  provinces  or  states  enjoy  autonomous  govern- 
ment or  home  rule,  with  certain  limited  powers  reserved  to 
the  federal  authority.  The  federal  republics  are  :  Argen- 
tina, Brazil,  Mexico,  and  Venezuela,  but  the  first-named  has 
accorded  a  somewhat  more  prescribed  form  of  home  rule 
to  its  component  states,  the  laws  and  judicial  proceedings 
of  one  state  being  enforced  throughout  the  republic,  and 
not,  as  in  the  United  States,  varying  for  different  states. 
The  centralised  republics,  embodying  all  the  remaining 
countries  in  South  and  Central  America — Peru,  Chile, 
Colombia,  Bolivia,  Uruguay,  Guatemala  and  others — have  a 
central  system  of  government,  and  are  divided  for  purposes 
of  administration  into  departments,  generally  with  prefects 
or  political  chiefs  at  their  head,  the  office  being  appointed 
by  the  national  executive,  with  a  corresponding  measure 
of  autocracy. 

The  governing  powers  set  forth  in  the  constitutions 
generally  consist  in  three  partially  independent  branches  of 
administration  :  the  Executive,  the  Legislative  and  the 
Judicial,  represented  respectively  by  the  president  and  his 
cabinet  ;  the  National  Congress  of  two  chambers,  or 
senators  and   deputies ;    and  a   Supreme   Tribunal.     The 

c 


34  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 

executive  power  is  vested  in  the  president,  elected  for  a  term, 
generally  of  four  years,  by  direct  vote,  and  a  vice-president, 
who  succeeds  to  the  presidential  chair  automatically  when 
the  office  suddenly  becomes  vacant.  The  president  is  advised 
and  assisted  by  his  cabinet  of  ministers  ;  and  his  duties, 
in  the  majority  of  cases,  include  that  of  commanding  the 
armed  forces  of  the  republic.  The  portfolios  of  ministers 
are  generally  designated  as  those  of  Foreign  Affairs,  Finance, 
Agriculture,  Industry  and  Commerce,  Communication  and 
Public  Works,  War,  and  Marine.  In  some  states  there  are 
variations  and  additions  to  the  governmental  departments, 
such  as  the  Department  of  Fomento — the  word  meaning 
"  Encouragement  " — which  is  an  important  branch  of  the 
Executive,  dealing  with  the  establishment  of  new  industries 
and  kindred  matters. 

The  gravest  evil  in  Latin  American  government  is  the 
abuse  of  the  electoral  power.  It  is  almost  impossible  under 
present  conditions  for  the  voice  of  the  people  to  be  heard 
impartially  and  authoritatively  in  their  own  government. 
Presidents  and  governors  frequently  strive  to  nominate 
their  successors  when  their  own  legal  term  is  run  ;  and 
these,  by  their  local  influence,  bring  about  intimidation  and 
corruption  at  the  ballot-boxes.  It  is  doubtful  if  among  the 
whole  of  the  self-governing  republics  there  is  a  single  one 
wherein  an  honest  and  impartial  election  takes  place.  The 
principal  means  of  protest  or  remedy,  and  that  which  is  freely 
applied,  is  a  pronounciamiento  and  revolution.  Naturally 
this  method,  if  successful,  no  more  establishes  the  popular 
choice  of  rulers  than  that  which  brought  into  power  the  law- 
givers whom  it  has  ousted  by  the  sword.  In  these  methods 
the  southern  republics  of  America  differ  absolutely  from 
their  model,  the  United  States,  where  the  president  and 
higher  officials  are  truly  elected  by  popular  vote  and  repre- 
sent the  choice  of  the  majority.  As  suffrage  depends  upon 
literacy  only  a  small  proportion  of  the  people  can  vote. 

The  administration  of  justice  in  Latin  American  com- 
munities, in  general,  leaves  much  to  be  desired.  It  is  not 
too  sweeping  a  statement  to  say  that  civil  and  criminal 
courts  in  every  Latin  American  republic,   under  present 


GENERAL  PHYSICAL  AND  SOCIAL  CONDITIONS    35 

development,  are  corrupt  and  dilatory.  Clean  and  speedy 
justice  is  a  plant  of  slow  growth ;  judges  and  witnesses  are 
rarely  without  their  price  ;  and  favouritism  and  the  longest 
purse  are  too  often  the  adjuncts  of  success  in  the  courts  of 
Latin  America.  This  and  other  venal  attributes  appear 
prominently  through  the  covering  of  Latin  American  admin- 
istration, and  shew  how  backward  in  this  respect  is  their 
civilisation.  Underlying  and  ingrained  corruption  of  this 
nature,  taken  in  conjunction  with  the  great  distances  over 
which  the  arm  of  the  law  must  reach,  and  the  dearth,  away 
from  the  towns,  of  inhabitants  of  an  educated  class  to  uphold 
it,  render  administration  of  justice  in  the  remoter  regions 
extremely  difficult.  These  conditions  do  not  apply  only  to 
the  small  and  backward  states,  but  equally  to  the  most 
prominent  communities,  such  as  the  Argentine  republic, 
Brazil,  or  Mexico. 

The  constitutions  of  the  Latin  American  republics  gen- 
erally set  forth  the  relations  of  Church  and  State.  Most  of 
them  recognise  the  Roman  Catholic  Apostolic  religion  as 
that  of  the  nation  ;  some  proclaim  that  no  law  shall  be 
made  concerning  either  the  establishment  or  the  prohibition 
of  any  kind  of  religion  ;  that  religious  worship  shall  be  in 
no  way  established,  subsidised,  or  embarrassed.  In  some 
states  the  public  exercise  of  worship  other  than  the  Roman 
Cathohc  is  absolutely  prohibited,  but  in  others,  in  practice, 
a  certain  amount  of  toleration  exists.  But  great  hostility 
attaches  in  the  remote  regions  of  certain  states  to  any  form 
of  Protestant  religious  establishments  or  public  teaching, 
and  throughout  the  whole  of  Latin  America  public  sympathy 
is  against  any  form  of  Protestantism,  and  is  easily  aroused 
by  the  clerical  element  to  display  antagonism.  In  the 
smaller  towns  and  in  the  villages  the  petty  ecclesiastical 
authority  is  a  person  of  considerable  importance.  But  the 
influence  of  the  local  priest  in  the  more  remote  places  has 
been  subject  to  grave  reproach,  due  to  extortionate  treat- 
ment of  the  Indians,  whose  religious  instruction  and  practice 
is  degraded  almost  to  the  level  of  a  superstition  at  times, 
and  to  customs  of  immoral  living.  The  law  of  celibacy  is 
rarely  honoured  in  such   places,  but  on   the   contrary  is 


36  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

violated  openly,  showing  both  its  irrationality  and  the  low 
standard  of  morality.  Under  present  conditions,  however, 
the  Church  in  these  remote  places  must  be  regarded  as  a 
restraining  force  and  a  check  upon  the  petty  abuses  of  the 
local  authorities  and  traders — abuses  which  are  so  serious 
an  evil  throughout  Latin  America.  In  the  state  capitals 
and  larger  towns  religious  influence  is  strongl}'  marked,  and 
public  worship  and  the  observance  of  the  Sabbath  universal  : 
although  its  influence  is  held  to  be  dechning,  especially 
among  the  male  portion  of  the  population,  who  are  notably 
falling  into  materialism  :  probably  a  temporary  reaction 
from  papistry.  This  is  not  the  case,  however,  with  the 
female  element,  for  women  are  the  most  ardent  supporters  of 
the  Romish  Church  and  its  priestly  regimen — an  influence 
which  must  be  regarded  impartially. 

The  Church,  and  church  architecture,  is  one  of  the 
dominating  features  of  Latin  American  life.  The  most 
abiding  link  with  the  old  Spanish  regimen  is  the  ecclesiastical 
— as  is  the  domestic — architecture.  There  was  something 
essentially  noble  about  an  influence  that  so  lavishly  endowed 
hundreds  of  cities,  distributed  over  thousands  of  miles  of 
almost  inaccessible  territory,  with  beautiful  cathedrals  and 
churches  and  massive  and  enduring  public  buildings  ; 
which  gave  every  village  its  humbler  temple,  and  lined  the 
squares,  alamedas,  and  streets  of  towns  with  quaint  and 
dignified  facades,  such  as  are  encountered  in  every  centre 
of  population  in  Latin  America.  The  ecclesiastical  struc- 
tures and  general  town-planning  of  the  old  Spanish  colonies 
was  not  motived  by  any  hasty  commercialism  or  desire  for 
ostentation,  but  by  reverence  and  a  sense  of  the  beautiful, 
and  a  desire  to  build  solidly  and  well.  There  are  certain 
attractive  possibihties  about  the  Latin  American  towns, 
as  regards  their  general  structure  and  regimen.  They  are 
not  manufacturing  or  exporting  centres,  but  are  more  or 
less  self-supporting,  drawing  their  supplies  from  local 
resources  and  consuming  what  they  produce.  Such  towTis 
are  scattered  in  thousands  throughout  South  and  Central 
America  and  INIexico,  and  when  the  social  condition  and 
educational  standard  of  the  people  are  upraised  they  will 


GENERAL  PHYSICAL  AND  SOCIAL  CONDITIONS  37 

form  permanent  centres  of  quiet  civilisation  superior  in 
character  to  those  of  the  manufacturing  communities  of 
other  lands,  where  squalor  and  poverty  are  the  inevitable 
accompaniment  of  commercialism.  Thus,  there  is  much 
in  the  plan  and  general  disposition  of  the  Latin  American 
city  which  is  of  sociological  value.  The  centre  of  the 
town,  however  small,  consists  in  a  plaza  or  pubhc  square, 
with  a  band-stand,  which  forms  a  promenade  for  the 
populace,  and  a  common  meeting-ground  for  the  sexes. 
These  plazas  are  generally  prettily  planted  with  shady  trees 
and  flowers,  and  their  benches  are  pleasing  places  of  sojourn 
from  the  noonday  sun,  where  none  need  be  ashamed  to 
dally  awhile.  At  evening,  when  the  band  plays,  which 
generally  takes  place  several  times  a  week,  a  large  concourse 
gathers  there.  From  the  plaza  run  the  main  streets,  lined 
with  dwelling-houses  and  shops.  The  four  sides  of  the 
plaza  are  generally  faced  by  the  public  buildings,  the 
cathedral  or  church  taking  an  honoured  place,  and  the 
national  palace  or  municipal  building  a  prominent  position. 
The  poriales,  or  arches  which  generally  occupy  one  or 
more  sides  of  the  plaza,  are  useful  and  pleasing  features 
of  civic  architecture,  forming  a  covered  way,  both  from  sun 
and  rain,  for  the  foot-passenger.  These  examples  of  their 
Madrid  prototype  are  encountered  in  nearly  all  the  principal 
cities  of  Latin  America,  from  the  numerous  state  capitals 
of  Mexico  to  those  of  South  America.  Modern  construction, 
however,  tends  to  eliminate  this  feature,  and  much  else 
that  is  attractive,  in  domestic  architecture. 

Notwithstanding  the  possibilities  of  life  in  the  country, 
the  dweller  in  the  Latin  American  metropolis  cultivates  a 
species  of  superior  pride  in  his  urban  surroundings,  and  there 
is  the  same  tendency  among  all  except  the  Indian  classes 
to  desert  the  country  for  the  towns  such  as  is  displayed  in 
European  countries  or  the  United  States.  In  the  principal 
cities  of  Latin  America  the  cost  of  hving  is  high.  Food, 
clothing,  or  at  least  as  regards  imported  articles  of  provision 
or  apparel,  are  dear  ;  and  house  rent,  especially  in  such 
centres  as  Buenos  Ayres,  Lima,  Mexico,  Rio  de  Janeiro  and 
others,  is  out  of  all  proportion  to  the  amount  of  space  and 


38  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 

comfort  obtainable.  Taken  as  a  whole,  rents  are  far  higher 
than  in  similar  situations  encountered  in  Europe.  The 
cost  of  living  in  Latin  American  cities,  having  regard  to  the 
great  unoccupied  spaces  and  vast,  unexploited  national 
resources,  is  exorbitant,  and  life  is  consequently  cramped. 
In  the  small  towns  and  in  the  country  living  is,  however,  very 
cheap.  But  the  phenomenon  of  high  cost  of  living  is  more  and 
more  calling  for  remedy  in  the  New  World  as  in  the  Old. 

The  business  quarters  of  the  Latin  American  capitals 
display  shops  and  warehouses  which  are,  in  some  cases, 
almost  the  equal  of  such  in  Europe  or  the  United  States. 
If  the  commercial  side  of  the  people  is  less  developed  than 
in  Europe  or  North  America,  there  is  no  lack  of  activity  in 
shopkeeping.  Furthermore,  there  is  nothing  derogatory  to 
the  upper  class  in  those  communities  in  engaging  in  com- 
merce, and  even  in  disposing  of  their  own  goods  over  the 
counter.  The  learned  professions  do  not  necessarily  carry 
any  social  superiority  over  those  of  trade — supposing  the 
trader  to  be  wealthy.  Wealth  is  regarded  with  marked 
respect.  The  possession  of  money  is  the  most  powerful 
means  of  influence  in  these  republican  communities.  Yet 
the  national  traits  of  courtesy  between  man  and  man  cause 
the  very  marked  difference  in  position  brought  about  by 
wealth  and  influence  to  appear  less  acute  than  is  the  case 
among  northern  people  ;  and  the  suavity  of  manner  and 
formality  of  address  on  the  part  of  their  betters,  to  which 
the  poorest  are  entitled,  are  deeply  ingrained  customs. 

Life  in  the  country  districts  in  Latin  America  has  little 
of  the  character  of  rural  life  in  England  or  other  European 
countries,  where  civilised  man  has  been  in  close  contact 
with  the  land  for  centuries.  The  economic  contrast  between 
the  great  landowners,  the  masters  of  the  haciendas  of  Mexico 
and  the  Andean  countries,  or  the  estancias  of  Argentina 
and  the  fazendas  of  Brazil,  and  the  humble  tillers  of  the 
soil  could  not  be  more  marked  in  the  most  despotic  country. 
Upon  these  great  estates  the  semi-serfs— for  the  system 
renders  them  practically  such — live  more  or  less  on  sufferance, 
dependent  upon  the  autocratic  requirements  of  their  masters. 
There  is  no  class  corresponding  to  an  independent  peasantry 


GENERAL  PHYSICAL  AND  SOCIAL  CONDITIONS    39 

or  yeomanry.  The  housing  of  the  workers  is  generally  of 
the  poorest  possible  description,  and  there  are  practically  no 
laws  protecting  labour  either  in  town  or  country.  Yet  the 
character  of  the  peon,  or  working  class  generally,  is  such  as 
causes  him  to  extract  what  of  light-heartedness  is  possible 
out  of  his  humble  estate. 

Latin  American  society  is  seen  at  its  greatest  ease  in  the 
towns.  As  regards  the  upper  class  individual  or  youth  of 
Latin  America,  it  cannot  be  said  that  he  is  of  a  vigorous  or 
adventurous  nature  such  as  new  lands  require.  He  is 
generally  found  in  the  cafes  or  plazas  indulging  in  more  or 
less  mild  dissipations,  studying  his  own  diversion  largely, 
a  creature  of  pavements,  preferring  patent-leather  shoes  and 
ample  breadth  of  collar  and  cuff  to  the  garb  of  the  sportsman 
or  tourist.  He  is  much  more  eloquent  and  possesses  far 
more  savoir  faire  in  social  matters  than  the  Enghshman  or 
American,  who  to  him  seems  lacking  in  those  arts  which, 
in  his  view,  make  the  persona  bien  ediicada  and  man  of  the 
world.  Much  of  this  polish  is  native,  part  superficial,  and 
all  a  matter  of  race.  As  regards  diversions,  theatre-going, 
love-making  and  kindred  matters  are  those  which  preferably 
occupy  the  Latin  American  young  man  until  that  age  when 
he  may  become  a  politician  ;  and  the  enjoyment  and  security 
of  a  government  post  are  frequently  his  goal.  A  very 
considerable  number  of  citizens  live  in  the  employ  of  the 
government  in  the  capital  cities  of  Latin  America.  It 
appears  far  easier  and  more  attractive  to  this  class  to  make 
a  living  as  a  state  employe  than  in  some  individual  occupa- 
tion involving  hard  v/ork  and  personal  enterprise.  It  is, 
however,  true  that  in  some  instances  young  men  of  the 
upper  class  are  turning  their  attention  to  the  engineering 
professions,  which  take  them  away  from  the  cities  ;  but 
these  are  exceptions  To  live  in  the  capital  is  to  acquire 
the  hall-mark  of  civilisation  and  citizenship,  for  the  educated 
individual  of  Latin  American  race  :  a  sentiment  largely 
borrowed  from  Paris.  It  might  have  been  supposed  that 
in  lands  lying  vacant,  and  in  some  cases  almost  unknown, 
such  as  are  in  the  possession  of  many  of  the  republics,  the 
sturdy  youth  would  have  gone  forth  to  explore,  to  map,  to 


40  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH  AMERICA 

develop,  to  undergo  the  hardships  of  the  wilderness  as 
sportsmen  and  travellers.  These  matters,  however,  are 
mainly  reserved  for  foreigners,  principally  British,  German, 
or  American,  The  fascination  of  the  wilds  does  not  appeal 
to  the  educated  native.  Thousands  of  miles  of  unexplored 
rivers  and  dense  forests  exist  in  South  America  and  Mexico, 
and  mountain  peaks  among  the  highest  in  the  world  form 
the  summits  of  the  Andean  Cordillera,  many  of  them  still 
unascended.  Archaeological  remains  in  both  continents, 
and  unsolved  ethnic  problems  among  the  most  interesting 
in  the  world  are  the  property  of  the  Spanish  American  race, 
in  Mexico  and  Central  and  South  America :  but  investigation 
into  their  little-known  secrets  has  been  almost  entirely  the 
work  of  foreigners.  There  is  perhaps  some  excuse  for  the 
native.  His  views  and  knowledge  are  naturally  circum- 
scribed, due  to  lack  of  association  with  older  communities 
and  a  paucity  of  ideas  and  aspirations,  owing  to  the  present 
relative  isolation  of  Latin  American  centres  of  civiUsation. 
Purely  disinterested  scientific  study,  moreover,  appeals  less 
to  small  growing  communities  than  to  older  ones. 

Education  in  the  Latin  American  republics  must  be 
regarded,  as  a  whole,  as  exceedingly  backward.  The  upper 
classes,  however,  are  very  well,  if  sometimes  superficially, 
educated,  but  the  lower  are  generally  illiterate.  In  Brazil 
and  Mexico  80  per  cent,  of  the  population  are  unable  to  read 
and  write,  and  the  percentage  of  illiterates  in  the  smaller 
republics  is  generally  higher.  In  Argentina  50  per  cent, 
are  illiterate  :  in  Chile  75  per  cent.  Naturally  the  difficulties 
throughout  those  countries,  where  the  Indian  population 
predominates,  of  educating  this  class  have  been  great ; 
but  the  duty  has  nevertheless  been  seriously  neglected. 
Primary  education  is  free  and  compulsory  ever3rwhere, 
but  funds,  buildings,  and  teachers  are  generally  far  from 
being  sufficient.  Among  the  upper  class  in  Latin  America 
the  prevalence  of  the  university  degree  has  always  been  a 
well-marked  feature  of  social  life.  Doctors  of  law,  science, 
medicine,  and  divinity  appear  far  more  numerous  in  propor- 
tion to  the  population  than  in  European  countries  or  the 
United  States,     To  become  a  "  doctor  "  is  the  principal 


GENERAL  PHYSICAL  AND  SOCIAL  CONDITIONS    41 

aim  of  the  young  man  of  well-to-do  families  in  those  com- 
munities. The  desire  to  obtain  the  coveted  doctorate  is 
less  for  the  purpose  of  practising  the  particular  profession, 
and  in  becoming  a  useful  member  of  society  thereby,  tlian 
in  the  pride  of  a  more  or  less  gilded  distinction  which  it 
confers.  A  large  percentage  of  those  who  acquire  doc- 
torates do  not  practise  their  professions  ;  and  this  gives 
rise  to  a  species  of  intellectual  proletariate.  In  most 
Latin  American  countries  a  crowd,  almost  a  plague,  of 
young  men  with  diplomas  constantly  descends  from  the 
universities  upon  the  country,  with  an  excess  of  intellect- 
uality and  a  contempt  often  for  the  practical  side  of  life, 
or  ignorance  of  it,  which  works  detrimentally  in  the 
national  interests.  In  certain  countries,  such  as  Brazil  and 
Chile,  the  title  of  doctor  has  been  abolished,  as  being  un- 
democratic ;  a  circumstance  not  without  some  significance. 
Some  of  the  universities  of  the  Latin  American  republics 
are  very  old,  older  than  any  in  the  United  States.  Those  of 
Lima  and  the  city  of  Mexico  were  established  as  early  as 
155 1,  and  at  Cordoba  in  Argentina  the  university  was 
founded  by  the  Jesuits  in  1613.  In  nearly  all  the  republics, 
except  Uruguay,  Paraguay,  and  Brazil,  the  universities  ^o 
back  to  early  colonial  times.  The  universities  of  Ecuador 
and  Guatemala  are  small,  but  in  Argentina  there  are  four 
universities  with  7,000  students,  one  alone  at  Buenos  Ayres 
having  5,000  students.  In  Chile  there  are  2,000  students 
at  the  state  university  and  several  hundred  in  the  Catholic 
university  ;  and  in  Peru,  at  the  Lima  university,  nearly 
1,000,  with  three  provincial  universities.  Uruguay  has 
7,000  university  students,  and  Brazil  8,000  pupils  of  the 
standing  of  university  students,  but  without  the  name  of 
such,  as  elsewhere  described.  A  considerable  expenditure  is 
being  made  of  late  years  in  higher  education  in  Latin 
America  ;  fine  buildings  are  being  erected,  and  the  salaries 
of  teachers  increased.  In  Uruguay,  in  the  last  few  years, 
a  sum  equal  to  ;j^400,ooo  has  been  spent,  and  at  the 
university  of  La  Plata,  in  Argentina,  nearly  £2,000,000.  The 
majority  of  the  professors  in  the  universities  are  men  who 
practise  their  profession  simultaneously^ — lawyers,  doctors, 


43  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 

engineers,  architects,  etc.,  also  newspaper  men,  editors, 
and  publishers,  v/ho  come  in,  as  it  were,  from  the  street  and 
teach.  Whilst  under  this  system  methods  are  not  well 
organised,  there  is  the  advantage  that  professional  men  of 
good  social  standing  are  engaged  therein,  and  accept  the 
professorships.  The  universities,  except  those  at  Santiago 
in  Chile,  Sao  Paulo  in  Brazil,  and  Bogota  in  Colombia,  are 
founded  by  and  dependent  upon  the  state.  There  are 
many  private  schools  in  secondary  education,  and  private 
societies,  not  religious,  in  the  Latin  American  countries,  as 
shewn  in  their  places.  The  securing  of  a  diploma  in  any 
of  the  Latin  American  universities  takes  from  five  to  six 
years.  A  feature  of  the  university  system  is  the  "  League 
of  Students'  Societies  " — of  which  three  congresses  have  been 
held  since  1908,  with  representatives  from  all  Latin  American 
universities.  These  congresses  are  perhaps  unique,  and 
have  for  their  object  the  creation  of  student  sympathy  in 
America,  which,  it  is  argued,  may  be  conducive  to  a  general 
peace  movement  throughout  the  various  countries. 

In  summing  up  the  Latin  American  character  and  insti- 
tutions full  regard  must  be  had  for  the  comparatively  recent 
development  of  the  republics.  They  are  not  a  slow  growth 
of  independent  colonisation,  like  the  Anglo-American  people, 
but  were,  in  a  sense,  created  at  a  blow  by  their  Spanish 
and  Portuguese  progenitors,  and  are  indelibly  stamped  with 
the  characteristics  of  those  nations.  To  uphold  and  yet  to 
modify  those  characteristics  is  at  once  their  privilege  and 
task.  The  Latin  Americans  are  a  people  in  the  making  : 
not  an  apathetic,  complacent,  or  corrupt  people  living  upon 
their  past,  like  certain  effete  races  of  the  Old  World  ;  and 
what  of  apathy  and  corruption  they  have  are  open  to  the 
influences  of  advancing  civilisation. 

In  general  terms  it  may  be  said  that  the  vast  uninhabited 
regions  of  South  America  cannot  be  more  fully  opened  up 
to  civilisation  and  economic  development  until  railways 
are  built  to  traverse  them.  But  railway  construction  in 
such  regions,  due  to  the  physical  formation  of  the  countr}^ 
and  the  climate  is,  in  many  cases,  exceedingly  costly.  Not 
only  have  great  elevations  to  be  surmounted,  but  the  heavy 


GENERAL  PHYSICAL  AND  SOCIAL  CONDITIONS  43 

rainfall  acting  upon  precipitous  slopes  is  destructive  of  the 
permanent  way,  and  calls  for  heavy  expense  in  upkeep  : 
and  costly  bridges  and  tunnels  are  the  necessary  results 
of  travers^'ng  mountainous  regions  and  broken  country. 
The  economic  conditions  in  South  America  differ  from  those 
which  obtain  in  the  United  States  and  Canada,  where  new 
trans-continental  railways  either  encountered  populations 
already  in  being,  or  else  traversed  territory  more  immediately 
available  for  settlement  by  the  white  man.  The  high 
elevations  to  be  crossed  in  North  America,  in  reaching 
the  Pacific  slope  from  the  Atlantic,  are  far  less  formidable 
than  those  in  South  America.  The  Canadian  Pacific  and 
the  Grand  Trunk  raihvays  cross  their  highest  passes  at  5,300 
and  3,700  feet  above  sea  level  respectively,  and  the  Cali- 
fornian  and  other  more  southern  lines  at  somewhat  greater 
elevations  :  but  the  South  American  lines  which  traverse 
the  Andes,  the  Oroya  railway  and  the  Southern  railway  of 
Peru,  reach  15,660  feet  and  14,660  feet  respectively ; 
the  Trans- An  dean  of  Chile  tunnels  under  the  summit  at 
nearly  10,400  feet  ;  and  the  Quito-Guayaquil  line  reaches 
a  similar  altitude.  Even  the  railways  of  Mexico  traverse 
the  Sierra  Madre  ranges  at  altitudes  greater  than  those  of 
the  United  States  ;  and  were  it  not  for  the  isthmus  of 
Panama  and  certain  other  low  passes  in  Central  America, 
there  would  be  an  unbroken  mountain  wall  across  half  a 
hemisphere. 

Where  economic  returns  are  assured  in  South  America 
a  network  of  railways  tends  to  grow,  such  as  has  come  to 
being  in  Eastern  Brazil  and  Argentina  ;  but  throughout 
the  whole  of  the  great  states  lying  on  the  western  and 
northern  sides  of  the  continent  the  railways  are  scanty  and 
of  difficult  operation.  Until  the  governments  of  those 
countries  are  in  a  position  to  encourage  railway  construc- 
tion, the  huge  regions  under  their  control  will  remain 
practically  closed  to  the  outer  world  :  but  at  present  they 
are  poor  ;  their  budgets  provide  little  more  than  the 
means  to  meet  their  general  obligations,  and  even  in  these 
shortage  too  often  occurs.  Thus  the  main  problem  for  the 
economic  development  of  Latin  America  is  in  the  more 


44  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH   AIMERICA 

active  building  of  railways,  or  the  development  of  other 
means  of  transport  and  commmiication.  Whether  air 
transport  will  render  any  assistance  in  the  inaccessible 
mountain  regions  remains  to  be  seen.  Roads  are  expensive 
or  neglected.  The  possibilities  of  development  of  a  cheap 
form  of  motor  railv/ay  have  received  scarcely  any  attention. 
The  ordinary  steam  railway  is  ill  adapted  for  mountainous 
districts,  due  to  the  small  hill-ascending  capacity  of  the 
locomotive.  At  the  present  time  there  is  only  one  through 
trans-continental  line  in  South  America  :  the  Trans- Andean, 
from  Buenos  Ayres  to  Valparaiso,  which  crosses  the  narrow- 
ing width  of  the  continent  in  its  southerly  part.  The  great 
breadth  of  the  continent  is  without  any  means  of  transport 
except  the  natural  ones  afforded  by  great  fluvial  highways 
of  the  Amazon.  Some  railway  building  is  in  progress  in 
the  region  forming  the  great  middle  plain  which  extends  from 
Argentina  and  Paraguay  into  Bolivia  ;  and  extensive  tracts 
of  territory  are  being  opened  up  for  settlement  and  industry 
thereby.  The  principal  feature  of  this  work  is  the  joining 
of  the  railway  systems  of  the  eastern  and  western  republics, 
by  means  of  which  direct  communication  will  be  established 
between  Argentina,  Brazil,  Uruguay,  Paraguay,  and  Bolivia, 
Chile,  and  Peru.  The  heart  of  the  continent,  in  its 
southern  part,  is  therefore  being  placed  in  direct  communi- 
cation with  the  main  seaports,  both  of  the  Atlantic  and  the 
Pacific  coasts.  But  compared  with  the  north  American 
continent,  including  Mexico,  the  progress  of  railway  con- 
struction in  South  America  must  be  regarded  as  dilatory. 

It  is  generally  held  that  the  Panama  canal  is  to  bring 
largely  increased  prosperity  to  the  Latin  American  republics, 
or  at  least  those  which  lie  upon  the  Pacific  coast  :  and  it 
cannot  be  denied  that  benefits  will  accrue  to  the  continent 
from  the  working  of  the  great  waterway.  The  principal 
benefit  to  be  derived  by  the  countries  of  the  west  coast  of 
South  and  Central  America  will  be  in  the  means  of  more 
direct  transport  from  Europe  and  New  York  without 
transhipment,  and  the  avoidance  of  the  long  route  round 
Cape  Horn  or  through  the  straits  of  Magellan.  As  South 
America  will  become  practically  an  island  when  the  canal 


GENERAL   PHYSICAL  AND  SOCIAL  CONDITIONS  45 

is  in  operation,  doubtless  coasting  facilities  between  the 
western,  northern,  and  eastern  coasts  of  the  continent,  which 
at  present  are  hmited,  will  be  increased.  The  future  value 
to  the  world  of  the  canal  is  based  on  the  assumption  that 
steamship  traffic  and  the  steady  movement  of  goods  from 
one  part  of  the  earth's  surface  to  another,  the  imports  and 
exports  of  raw  material  and  food  products  and  manufac- 
tured articles,  is  to  continue  unabated.  But  it  is  to  be 
recollected  that,  as  far  as  North  and  South  America  are 
concerned,  the  peopling  of  these  continents  and  their  econ- 
omic growth  ma}^  tend  more  towards  the  absorption  locally 
of  their  native  products  :  and  the  growth  of  home  manu- 
facture must  lead  to  a  diminished  demand  for  foreign-made 
articles.  Such  conditions  have  already  taken  place  in  the 
United  States  and  are  bound  to  follow  in  Canada.  Brazil 
and  Mexico  already  consume  almost  all  the  raw  cotton  they 
produce,  and  supply  themselves  to  a  great  extent  with  cotton 
goods  from  their  own  mills  :  and  the  same  condition  obtains 
largely  with  regard  to  sugar ;  whilst  the  growth  of  popula- 
tion in  Argentina  must  tend  to  absorb  more  and  more  the 
great  stores  of  food  in  meat  and  wheat  at  present  exported 
by  that  republic.  How  far  the  carrying  trade  of  the  canal 
will  be  influenced  by  such  conditions  of  growing  economic 
equilibrium  in  Europe,  Asia,  and  America  remains  for  the 
future  to  demonstrate,  but  the  modem  tendency  would  seem 
to  be  for  nations  to  become  more  and  more  self-supplying 
and  self-supporting. 

The  important  navigable  rivers  of  Latin  America  are 
confined,  with  small  exception,  to  the  Atlantic  and  Carib- 
bean slopes  of  South  America.  Consequently  fluvial  navi- 
gation affords  a  comparatively  small  means  of  develop- 
ment within  the  great  stretches  of  territory  upon  the 
Pacific  coast.  The  Pacific-flowing  rivers  of  Chile  and  Peru 
are  mainly  of  value  as  water  supply  for  irrigation,  consisting 
in  short,  rapid,  torrential  streams  in  great  part,  unsuitable 
for  navigation.  The  Guayaquil  river  is  the  only  one  of  any 
magnitude,  and  this  is  not  navigable  by  large  steamers 
much  beyond  the  port  of  Guayaquil.  Equally  unimportant 
are  the  westward-flowing  rivers  of  Central  America  and 


46  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

Mexico.  It  is  upon  the  Amazon  and  its  great  stretches  of 
navigable  waterway,  and  the  Rio  de  la  Plata  and  its  tribu- 
taries on  the  eastern  side  ;  and  the  Orinoco  and  the  Magda- 
lena  on  the  north  that  the  continent  depends  for  its  natural 
means  of  communication.  Brazil  enjoys  immense  advan- 
tages in  the  distribution  of  its  river  basins,  which  afford 
means  of  access  to  the  interior  of  the  country  in  a  striking 
way, 

Latin  America  is  greatly  dependent  upon  the  sea  for  its 
means  of  communication.  South  America,  unlike  Europe 
and  Asia,  is  entirely  surrounded  by  sea.  There  are  no  vast 
interior  regions  or  separate  races  who,  as  in  the  Old  World, 
do  not  feel  the  influence  of  accessibility  by  sea.  On  the 
other  hand,  South  America  and  Mexico  are  but  poorly  en- 
dowed with  natural  seaports.  The  indentations  upon  their 
shore  lines  afford  surprisingly  few  natural  harbours  capable 
of  affording  safe  and  accessible  havens  for  maritime  traihck- 
ing,  without  enormous  outlay  in  defensive  works  and  docks. 
Seaports  such  as  exist  on  European  coasts,  deeply  indented 
and  well  sheltered,  are  scarce,  and  the  heavy  outlay  for 
harbour  works  in  the  Latin  American  countries  forms  one  of 
the  most  serious  items  in  the  budgets  of  those  republics. 

If  the  geology  and  topography  of  Latin  America  gave 
rise  to  a  paucity  of  facilities  for  natural  means  of  communi- 
cation, no  less  were  the  resources  of  the  animal  and  vegetable 
world  limited  in  earlier  times.  The  present  agricultural 
and  pastoral  wealth  of  Latin  America  has  been  built  upon 
exotics.  Neither  the  horse  nor  the  cow,  nor  sheep,  goats, 
swine,  or  any  other  four-footed  domestic  animal  or  beast  of 
burden — except  the  llama  and  the  dog — existed  in  the  New 
World  before  the  advent  of  the  European  ;  and  coffee,  sugar, 
wheat,  the  vine,  the  orange  and  the  olive,  and  many  other  of 
the  most  treasured  food-products  of  mankind,  were  unknown 
to  America  before  Columbus.  Against  these  great  gifts  of 
Europe  and  Asia,  America  had  her  valued  indigenous  pro- 
ducts of  cotton,  cocoa,  or  chocolate,  rubber,  the  potato, 
quinine,  and  other  useful  matters  to  offer  ;  together  with 
enormous  mineral  and  forestal  wealth,  and  the  capabilities 
of   her  soil   for    reproducing    the   imported  staples.     The 


GENERAL  PHYSICAL  AND  SOCIAL  CONDITIONS    47 

scope  and  output  of  the  great  industries  of  Latin  America 
have  become  of  prime  value  to  Europe  and  the  United 
States,  and  are  to  an  increasing  extent  attracting  the 
attention  of  the  trader  and  the  settler.  The  coffee  plan- 
tations of  Brazil  yield  three-quarters  of  the  world's  supply 
of  the  coffee  berry  ;  and  the  meat  and  wheat  industries 
of  Argentina  have  become  almost  an  essential  source  of 
food  supply  for  Britain.  The  cotton,  sugar,  wool,  and 
minerals  of  Peru  are  of  growing  importance  ;  and  the 
saltpetre  of  the  Chilean  nitrate  beds  has  become  indispen- 
sable to  agriculture  in  many  countries.  The  rubber  of 
Para,  the  outlet  of  the  Amazon  valley,  is  the  most  important 
source  of  supply  of  that  article  ;  and  the  coffee,  chocolate, 
fruits  and  tropical  products  of  Central  America  and  Mexico 
have  a  high  economic  value. 

The  prosperity  of  Latin  America  is  greatly  affected  by 
climatic  conditions.  A  great  part  of  South  America,  in- 
cluding Argentina,  Brazil,  Uruguay  and  other  lands,  has 
had,  during  the  last  ten  years,  a  rainfall  much  below  the 
normal  for  that  region  :  and  an  excess  is  to  be  expected, 
and  indeed  has  been  experienced  in  the  middle  of  1912, 
when  heavy  losses  in  the  crops  on  the  Argentine  pampas 
was  suffered — with  stoppage  of  the  Trans-Andean  railway 
for  six  months  by  reason  of  heavy  sno\vfalls.  The  drought 
and  the  flood  years  of  South  America  undoubtedly  go  in 
cycles,  a  fact  which  has  becom.e  evident.  The  same  pheno- 
menon is  observed  with  regard  to  the  locust  plague,  for  the 
locusts  come  in  cycles  of  years  and  then  disappear,  practi- 
cally, for  about  seven  years.  Upon  rainfall  naturally  de- 
pends irrigation,  which  is  a  necessity  of  agriculture  in  most 
countries  of  Latin  America.  The  coast  of  Peru  and  Chile 
is  rainless  and  one  of  the  driest  strips  of  land  on  the  surface 
of  the  globe  :  and  the  cotton,  sugar,  and  other  crops  of 
Peru  are  practically  all  dependent  upon  irrigation ;  which 
science  is  more  fully  developed  there  than  elsewhere  in 
South  America.  As  shewn  in  the  account  of  the  agriculture 
of  the  Tncas,  given  elsewhere,  irrigation  was  practised  and 
developed  in  Peru  in  prehistoric  times  in  a  remarkable  wslj. 
The  northern  plateau  of  Brazil,   Brazihan    Guiana,  is  in 


48  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH  AMERICA 

large  part  an  arid  waste,  due  to  low  rainfall,  and  much  of 
the  eastern  coast,  such  as  the  districts  of  Parahyba  and  the 
basin  of  the  San  Francisco  river,  suffers  from  long  droughts 
consequent  upon  uncertain  rainfall,  whilst  in  Bahia  pastoral 
industries  have  suffered  and  declined  from  continued  de- 
creased moisture.  In  Argentina  millions  of  acres  of  land 
are  uncultivable  for  lack  of  rain  :  and  the  condition  extends 
to  eastern  Bolivia,  where  attempts  at  irrigation  by  means 
of  artesian  wells  are  being  made.  Well-water,  however, 
is  generally  without  the  fertilising  matter  such  as  irrigation 
often  requires.  The  alluvial  deposits  of  British  Guiana 
along  the  margins  of  the  sea  and  river  mouth  are  the  seat 
of  sugar  estates,  and  are  intersected  by  canals,  made  prim- 
arily for  navigation  by  the  early  Dutch  colonists,  and  which 
are  also  used  as  a  means  of  irrigation.  Notwithstanding 
the  parched  areas,  a  greater  volume  of  rain  falls  upon  the 
land  of  South  America  than  upon  any  other  equal  area  of 
the  world,  and  when  better  methods  of  storing  or  distribu- 
ting the  surface  water  are  brought  about,  as  has  been  the 
case  in  other  continents,  South  America,  which  at  present 
lags  in  the  application  of  the  ancient  science  of  irrigation, 
will  greatly  increase  her  utility  as  a  reservoir  of  food  supply 
for  the  world.  The  example  of  Egypt,  India,  and  even  Cali- 
fornia, Arizona,  and  Mexico,  must  be  followed  :  lands  where 
fertility  and  wealth  have  been  wrested  from  what  once 
were,  and  normally  are,  dry,  desert  regions.  In  Egypt  it 
is  estimated  that  as  much  as  £8,000,000  has  been  spent  in 
the  last  twenty-five  years  or  more  in  irrigation  works, 
in  which  period  the  population  has  doubled,  and  the  cotton 
production  more  than  doubled.  In  Mexico,  a  great  deal 
of  whose  area  has  an  insufficient  rainfall,  much  more 
has  been  done  in  irrigation,  and  vast  fortunes  have  been 
made  in  cotton,  sugar,  and  other  products  under  scientific 
storage  and  distribution  of  water,  as  elsewhere  described : 
but  much  remains  to  be  done.  Parts  of  IMexico  and  Central 
America  have  the  heaviest  rainfall  of  any  region,  yet  are, 
in  places,  almost  arid  and  bare,  but  capable  of  fertility  under 
the  action  of  water.  "  Dry-farming"  is  yet  unpractised. 
It  is  a  question  of  vast  importance  to  South  America  as 


GENERAL  PHYSICAL  AND  SOCIAL  CONDITIONS    49 

to  whether  changes  in  the  cHmate  are  being  permanently 
brought  about.  On  the  Andes  it  appears  that  the  glaciers 
are  retreating,  and  the  snowfall  as  a  rule  becoming  less. 
Titicaca  and  other  high  regions  shew  the  effect  of  increased 
evaporation,  and  dried  river-channels  abound.  More  than 
three-quarters  of  the  western  slope  are  deserts,  and  any 
permanent  diminution  in  the  rainfall  would  render  them 
uninhabitable.  In  Mexico  and  western  America  generally 
it  would  appear  that  since  man  inhabited  the  land,  the 
climate  has  changed  to  a  large  degree  to  more  arid  conditions. 
The  markets  afforded  by  the  growing  population  and  in- 
creased wealth  and  powers  of  consumption  of  the  Latin  Amer- 
ican people  are  the  subject  of  strong  rivalry/  am.ong  foreign 
manufacturing  and  exporting  nations  ;  and  the  opportunities 
arising  for  the  investment  of  capital  in  public  works  and 
joint-stock  undertakings,  in  the  development  of  mines,  planta- 
tions, docks  and  rail^^■ays  are  taking  rank  among  the  most 
important  in  the  world.  As  described  elsewhere,  the  amount 
of  foreign  money,  mainly  British,  invested  in  these  matters 
is  approaching  a  thousand  million  pounds.  Although 
agriculture  is  the  principal  industry  of  almost  all  the  Latin 
American  countries,  the  mineral  resources  of  several  of  these 
repubhcs  must  be  regarded  as  among  their  most  important 
assets.  The  mountamous  districts  of  Peru  and  Mexico 
contain  almost  every  mineral  and  metal  of  commercial  and 
scientific  value,  although  it  has  yet  to  be  demonstrated  that 
important  industries  employing  coal  and  iron  can  be  estab- 
hshed  in  Mexico  or  South  America.  In  the  latter  continent 
coal  deposits  have  been  regarded  as  scarce,  and  the  coal 
inferior  in  quality  ;  but  further  examination  shews  that 
the  exposed  and  upturned  coal  seams  of  the  Andes,  which 
exist  in  great  quantities,  will  become  of  more  than  local 
value.  The  deposits  of  southern  Chile  have  long  been  a 
valuable  source  of  supply.  The  attention  of  experts  in  iron 
mining  is  being  drawn  to  the  ore  deposits  of  Brazil,  Chile, 
Peru,  and  Mexico.  The  petroleum  beds  of  the  two  last- 
named  countries,  and  of  others,  are  important  sources  of 
present  or  future  supply  of  oil-fuel.  The  copper  mines  of 
Chile  and  Mexico  have  long  been  of  leading  importance  in 

D 


50  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 

the  world's  supply  of  copper,  and  the  increased  output  of 
Peru  is  proving  that  country  to  be  an  abundant  source  of 
the  metal.  The  output  of  the  mines  of  the  great  vice-regal 
centres  formed  by  Mexico  and  Peru  was  largely  silver :  and 
at  the  time  of  the  Mexican  War  of  Independence,  in  1810,  the 
value  of  the  yearly  product  of  that  metal  was  $27,000,000, 
A  single  district  of  Mexico,  that  of  the  famous  mining  centre 
of  Zacatecas,  produced  between  1548  and  1867  more  than 
$800,000,000  of  silver.  In  Peru,  the  mines  of  Potosi  and 
Cerro  de  Pasco  were  equally  famous.  The  output  of  gold  was 
also  considerable  ;  but  the  first  great  shipments  of  the  metal 
were  the  result  of  the  loot  of  the  temples  and  palaces  of  the 
Inca  and  Aztec  chiefs,  by  Pizarro  and  Cortes  respectively. 
These  stores  of  gold  were  obtained  by  the  early  Peruvians 
and  Mexicans  from  aUuvial  deposits,  and  represented  the 
natural  accumulations  of  ages,  concentrated  in  the  beds 
of  streams :  but  the  gold  was  obtained  for  state  and 
religious  purposes,  and  was  not  employed  as  currency. 
Probably  quantities  were  buried  at  the  time  of  the  Conquest. 
The  quantities  of  silver,  and  to  a  less  extent  of  gold, 
recovered  in  Latin  America  from  the  mines  in  the  time  of 
the  viceroys  were  very  considerable.  But  it  was  not  obtained 
under  sound  economical  conditions.  Mining  was  carried  out 
largely  under  the  system  of  forced  labour,  under  which  the 
miners  were  paid  little  or  nothing,  consequently  the  ex- 
penses of  mining  were  the  lowest  possible.  The  life  of  the 
Indian  miner  was  looked  upon  by  the  Spaniards  and  Portu- 
guese colonists  and  taskmasters  as  of  no  account.  It  repre- 
sented to  them  so  many  yards  of  excavation  and  sacks  of 
ore.  Directly  the  labourer  failed,  as  he  soon  did  under  the 
lash,  the  incessant  toil,  and  the  rigours  of  the  climate  and 
poor  food,  he  was  replaced  by  another  without  exhausting 
the  supply.  Thus  it  was  that  the  most  difficult  and  remote 
regions  were  prospected  and  worked,  and  the  result  is  seen 
to-day  in  the  innumerable  abandoned  mines  encountered 
throughout  the  mineral-bearing  region  of  Mexico  and  South 
America,  from  Guanajuato  to  Potosi.  It  would  be  unjust 
to  the  Spanish  monarchs  of  colonial  times  to  assert  that  they 
drained  away  all  the  wealth  of  the  Indies,  or  that  they  were 


SOUTH  AMERICA 

(economic) 


100        90       80    LongweOofGr.      40      30       20 


"GE0GRAPHIA"C9-55  FLEET  STREET,  LONOON,ECt 


GENERAL  PHYSICAL  AND  SOCIAL  CONDITIONS  51 

necessarily  purposeful  in  the  oppressions  and  extermination 
of  the  Indian  races.  Royal  commissions  were  sent  out 
from  time  to  time  to  enquire  into  abuses,  and  laws  enacted 
to  protect  the  Indians.  A  portion  of  the  wealth  extracted 
from  the  mines  in  the  times  of  the  viceroys  went  to  build 
handsome  churches,  and  to  found  public  institutions. 
Some  of  the  viceroys  were  wise  and  humane  men  who  strove 
to  better  the  lot  of  the  Indian  and  the  colonist,  and  to  pro- 
tect the  latter  from  the  Inquisition.  Titles  and  rewards  were 
bestowed  by  the  kings  of  Spain  upon  the  founders  of  the 
great  mines,  and  royal  charters  granted  to  prosperous  and 
loyal  cities.  The  atrocious  excesses  committed  upon  the 
natives  were  largely  the  work  of  the  too  zealous  or  too 
grasping  colonists  and  agents.  It  has  generally  been  the 
colonist  who  has  oppressed  the  Indian.  Mining,  in  what- 
ever part  of  the  world  and  in  whatever  period,  has  led 
inevitably  to  the  exploitation  of  the  miners  by  mine-owners  : 
and  no  land  is  free  from  the  reproach.  Mining  and  religious 
sentiment  have  been  strangely  and  pathetically  mixed  in 
the  Latin  American  countries.  Deep  below  the  surface  in 
one  of  the  old  mines  of  Guanajuato,  in  Illexico,  there  is, 
or  was  until  recently,  an  elaborate  shrine  hghted  with  200 
candles,  always  burning.  These  candles  are  provided  by 
the  miners,  who  economise  their  own  supply,  suffering  the 
difticulty  of  traversing  the  dark  galleries  in  order  to  do 
this  homage  to  the  Virgin.  As  they  pass  the  shrine,  whose 
illumination  forms  a  sudden  contrast  with  the  black  gloom 
of  the  labyrinths,  staggering  under  the  enormous  load  of  a 
sack  of  silver  ore,  they  bend  the  knee,  and  the  accustomed 
hand  comes  up  to  make  the  sign  of  the  cross.  In  the  vast, 
ancient  quicksilver  mines  of  Huancavelica,  in  Peru,  there 
were  a  number  of  elaborate  chapels,  and  shrines,  crosses 
and  fonts,  far  down  in  the  subterranean  vrorkings,  but 
these  were  destroyed  by  the  collapse  of  the  mine,  as 
described  elsev.here.  There  are  many  other  evidences  of 
this  primitive  Christianity  of  the  native  miner.  There  have, 
however,  never  been  any  proper  laws,  nor  do  any  exist 
to-day,  to  protect  the  miner  in  Latin  America,  and  he  puis 
his  trust  in  his  saints  rather  than  in  his  employer. 


52  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 

The  reputation  possessed  by  South  America  as  a  gold- 
bearing  continent  is  a  strong  one,  although  vague  to  a 
certain  extent.  Gold  exists  in  enormous  alluvial  deposits 
in  the  Andes,  and  attempts  have  been  made  to  work  these 
in  some  instances  by  the  methods  of  hydraulic  mining,  in 
others  with  dredges  ;  mostly,  however,  without  success 
from  a  commercial  point  of  view.  In  Peru  and  Bolivia 
such  enterprises  may  prove  successful  in  the  future,  but  in 
Argentina  large  sums  of  money  have  been  lost,  notwith- 
standing that  the  work  was  undertaken  on  the  advice  of 
experts.  It  would  seem  that  nature  has  reserved  the  gold 
in  its  alluvial  form,  in  the  streams  and  gravel  deposits 
where  it  lies  richest,  for  the  benefit  of  the  individual  miner 
or  the  Indian,  who  is  often  able  to  obtain  small  profits 
where  a  joint-stock  enterprise  with  headquarters  in  London 
or  New  York  fails.  Nevertheless,  it  cannot  be  doubted  that 
great  quantities  of  recoverable  gold  exist.  Perhaps  the 
most  reliable  class  of  gold  mining  is  in  the  lodes  and  ore- 
deposits,  thousands  of  which  exist  in  the  Andes,  often 
traceable  for  miles,  under  conditions  which  in  other  countries 
would  long  ago  have  offered  allurement  for  investment  of 
capital.  The  lodes  are  often  long,  wide,  and  deep,  and  very 
rich,  and  the  formation  of  the  land  permits  working  by 
adit-levels,  and  water  power  is  often  available.  Ancient 
workings  abound  on  the  outcrops  of  such  lodes  generally, 
the  hills  of  I\Iexico,  Peru,  Colombia,  and  Brazil  being  honey- 
combed in  places  with  such,  and  these  were  often  abandoned 
because  methods  of  drainage  were  expensive.  The  ores 
were  crushed  and  the  gold  extracted  by  means  of  rocking- 
stones,  in  Peru,  which  still  remain  in  evidence.  There  is 
no  doubt  that  many  of  these  mines  are  capable  of  being 
worked  by  modern  methods  as  profitable  enterprises.  In 
many  cases  enormous  quantities  of  rich  ore  have  been 
extracted  from  the  mines  and  profitably  treated.  It  is, 
however,  noteworthy  that  the  number  of  paying  gold 
mines  in  South  America  is  very  small  at  present  :  and  it  is 
doubtful  if  the  gold  mining  industry  will  contribute  very 
greatly  to  the  advancement  of  Latin  America,  as  in  Cali- 
fornia,  Australia,  and  South  Africa.      In   those   lands  it 


GENERAL  PHYSICAL  AND  SOCIAL  CONDITIONS  53 

brought  a  large  and  active  population  with  it,  but  in  Latin 
America  this  is  rarely  the  case,  and  the  benefits  fall  mainly 
to  foreign  company  promoters  and  shareholders.  The  total 
output  of  gold  for  the  whole  of  Latin  America  in  1912  was 
£7,500,000,  against  £40,500,000  for  South  Africa.  For  South 
America  alone  it  was  but  £2,000,000.     It  does  not  increase. 

Rubber  of  late  years  has  been  one  of  the  products  of  Latin 
America  most  sought  for  ;  but  both  in  ]\Iexico  and  South 
America  its  production  has  been  attended  with  grave  diffi- 
culties and  abuses,  either  financial  or  as  concerns  labour. 
In  the  Amazon  valley  rubber  gathering  has  been  attended 
with  a  heavy  loss  of  native  life,  both  from  the  natural  dangers 
of  climate  and  forest  environment,  and  from  the  almost  in- 
credible abuses  practised  in  some  cases  upon  the  indigenes, 
by  whom  the  work  of  rubber  gathering  is  performed.  The 
ruthless  destruction  of  these  forest  Indians  was  not  e\'en 
stayed  by  economic  considerations  ;  nor  by  the  considera- 
tion that,  once  depopulated  of  its  native  inhabitants,  the 
forests  will  be  without  labour,  and  the  work  of  rubber  gather- 
ing will  be  effectively  paralysed.  It  has  been  afiirmed  that 
every  ton  of  rubber  from  the  Amazon  valley  has  cost  two 
human  lives.  Yet  the  wild  rubber  is  still  by  far  the  most 
important  source  of  the  world's  supply,  and  must  remain  so 
for  a  long  period  ;  and  the  prosperity  of  a  great  part  of 
Brazil  depends  entirely  upon  it.  Rubber  was  a  gift  of  Latin 
America  to  the  world.  The  Spaniards,  when  they  arrived 
in  Mexico,  found  the  natives  playing  a  national  game  of 
tennis  with  rubber  balls  in  the  great  stone-built  "  tennis- 
courts  "  which  are  among  the  archaeological  wonders  of 
Central  America.  In  the  Amazon  valley  the  early  Portu- 
guese observed  a  tribe  of  natives  who  used  a  species  of  squirt, 
or  syringe,  as  part  of  their  weapons,  and  from  this  the  jeringa 
rubber-tree  took  its  name.  These  matters  formed  the  earliest 
sources  of  knowledge  of  india-rubber  to  Europeans. 

Among  the  difficulties  of  life  and  development  of  the 
Latin  American  states,  flood,  drought,  and  pestilence  are 
severe.  On  both  coasts  yellow  fever,  plague,  smallpox, 
malaria  and  other  diseases,  epidemic  and  endemic,  have  been 
the  scourge  of  centuries.     But  just  as  drought  and  flood 


54  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 

may  be  brought  somewhat  under  control  by  engineering  and 
agricultural  science,  so  does  pestilence  tend  to  yield  to 
medical  science.  The  swamp  and  the  mosquito,  yellow  fever 
and  malaria — whether  at  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Santos,  Vera  Cruz, 
or  Panama — are  being  brought  under  control  by  sanitary  im- 
provements and  the  example  of  northern  races ;  and  it  is 
shewn  that  these  scourges  are  the  result  of  human  negligence, 
rather  than  being  an  inevitable  result  of  natural  conditions. 
Of  another  class,  however,  are  the  convulsions  of  nature 
which  paralyse  man's  hand  and  bring  destruction  to  his 
works — the  earthquakes  and  tidal  waves  which  so  frequently 
occur  on  the  western  side  of  the  Latin  American  countries, 
and  which  have  proved  serious  scourges  in  the  past  history 
of  the  coast  towTis  of  the  western  slope.  The  whole  of  the 
Pacific  coast  of  America,  from  Valparaiso  to  San  Francisco, 
suffers  from  the  effects  of  earthquakes ;  and  the  destruction 
of  those  two  cities  in  1906  was  not  an  isolated  phenomenon, 
for  the  Chilean  and  Peruvian  coast  towns,  Iquique,  Lima, 
Arequipa,  Callao,  Arica,  Piura  and  others,  as  well  as  the 
Mexican  towns  of  Chilpancingo,  Acapulco  and  others,  have 
suffered.  The  destruction  of  Callao  and  Lima  by  earthquake 
and  tidal  wave  in  the  past  was  one  of  the  most  terrible 
events  of  Peruvian  history.  The  greater  part  of  the  build- 
ings was  destroyed  ;  and  an  enormous  wave  followed  and 
swept  far  inland,  its  ravages  still  being  visible  even  to-day 
in  places  along  the  coast.  The  shock  which  destroyed 
Piura,  in  Peru,  in  1912,  was  felt  as  far  north  as  Guayaquil, 
and  inland  as  far  as  Cajamarca.  In  Guatemala  the  added 
menace  of  volcanic  eruptions  exists,  towns  and  plantations 
having  been  destroyed  b5^  lava  flows  and  earthquake  shocks, 
both  in  early  and  recent  times.  These  disasters  along  the 
Pacific  seaboard  may  be  repeated  at  any  moment.  The 
remedy,  as  regards  dwellings,  is  in  a  solid  low  type  of  con- 
struction :  and  it  speaks  well  for  the  solidity  of  the  Spanish 
colonial  buildings  that  they  have  resisted  the  effects  of  earth 
unrest  to  so  considerable  an  extent.  It  is  the  cheap  form 
of  construction  that  suffers.  These  convulsions  of  nature 
in  Latin  America  are,  however,  probably  not  worse  than  those 
which  afflict  Japan  and  other  lands. 


GENERAL  PHYSICAL  AND  SOCIAL  CONDITIONS    55 

Financially,  the  Latin  American  republics,  practically 
without  exception,  show  increasing  imports  and  exports, 
sometimes  rapidly  swelling  lists  of  such  ;  increasing  invest- 
ments of  capital  from  abroad,  and  expanding  national 
revenues,  brought  about  mainly  by  the  growing  com- 
mercial and  internal  development.  Argentina,  with  its 
population  of  less  than  7,000,000  inhabitants,  has  a  greater 
foreign  trade  than  Japan  with  50,000,000.  But  if  trade  and 
revenues  increase  in  Latin  America,  so  do  expenditures.  In 
providing  for  the  exploitation  of  their  resources,  and  in  cover- 
ing their  national  requirements  of  government,  education, 
armaments,  and  other  matters,  the  republics  of  Latin  America 
have  brought  about  an  almost  chronic  condition  of  budgetary 
deficit.  With  the  sole  exception  of  Mexico,  and  recently 
Peru,  a  budget  surplus  among  the  Latin  American  states 
is  unknown.  They  live  generally  beyond  their  income  ; 
although  there  are  certain  extenuating  circumstances  for 
the  condition,  in  some  cases. 

With  the  exception  of  Brazil  and  the  three  Guianas  and 
some  of  the  Antilles,  Spanish  is  the  universal  official  lan- 
guage of  Latin  America,  which  thus  forms  a  vast  community 
without  those  difficult  barriers  presented  by  a  foreign  tongue, 
such  as  exist  between  European  nations.  The  laws,  de- 
crees, newspapers  and  literature  of  one  republic  pass  easily 
to  another,  and  mutual  understanding  is  greatly  facilitated  : 
a  condition  which  tends  to  make  for  peace  in  international 
relations,  and  is  of  much  value  in  matters  of  commerce. 
Spanish,  as  a  language  of  world-commerce,  may  be  ranked 
second  in  importance  to  English,  and  the  field  over  which 
it  is  in  use  is  constantly  growing.  Spanish,  moreover,  is  at 
the  same  time  the  easiest  yet  one  of  the  richest  of  languages. 
Its  facility  of  expression  and  its  absolutely  phonetic  quality 
render  it  far  easier  to  acquire  than  any  other  language  in 
the  world.  As  spoken  in  Latin  America  the  Castellano, 
or  Spanish,  differs  somewhat,  but  very  slightly,  from  that  of 
its  mother  country.  It  may  be  regarded  as  more  advanced 
and  virile,  and  although  there  are  marked  variations  between 
the  mode  of  speech  and  accent  of  the  different  republics, 
these  depart  fay  less  from  the  common  stock  than  do  the 


56  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 

dialects  of  Spain  itself.  In  nothing  is  the  innate  courtesy 
of  the  people  of  Spanish  race  more  markedly  shewn  than  in 
their  attitude  towards  foreigners  endeavouring  to  express 
themselves  in  that  language.  In  Spanish  America,  Spanish 
has  been  greatly  enriched  by  the  adoption  of  words  and 
phrases  from  French,  English  and  Italian,  and  it  may  almost 
be  said  that  it  is  gromng  to  meet  the  demands  of  the  num- 
erous people  of  the  old  world  who  have  arrived  in  such  con- 
siderable numbers.  Italian  is  second  in  importance  to 
Spanish  and  Portuguese,  in  South  America,  due  to  the  con- 
siderable Italian  immigration  ;  but  English  is  very  widely 
understood  and  spoken,  and  its  acquisition  is  considered  a 
necessary  part  of  a  commercial  education.  French  remains 
the  foreign  language  of  greatest  distinction. 

There  is  a  peculiar  interest  to  the  traveller  who  does  not 
necessarily  desire  the  modern  comforts  of  hotels  and  trains, 
about  life  and  travel  in  the  Latin  American  countries,  which 
cannot  be  found  in  the  United  States  or  Canada.  It  lies 
partly  in  nature,  but  mainly  in  the  setting  and  atmo- 
sphere of  an  older  social  system,  a  simpler,  kinder,  and  more 
human  outlook.  The  dominant  motive  of  dollar-getting,  to 
which  life  in  the  United  States  and  Canada  is,  in  its 
present  phase,  largely  subordinated,  is  absent.  The  people 
seem  to  belong  to  their  soil  in  a  greater  degree  :  they  live 
nearer  nature,  and  the  system  of  caste,  however  objection- 
able it  may  seem  to  the  philosopher  from  the  democratic 
point  of  view,  certainly  preserves  between  man  and  man 
a  greater  sense  of  courtesy  and  refinement.  The  blatant 
"  business  "  type,  so  common  in  North  America,  has  not  come 
to  being  in  these  southern  republics.  The  overalled  me- 
chanic, with  his  oaths  and  oily  dress  and  aggressive  tongue, 
who  forms  so  prominent  a  class  in  the  United  States,  does 
not  flourish  on  Latin  American  soil.  That  its  pleasing 
individuality  should  be  maintained,  with,  at  the  same  time, 
the  upraising  of  the  lower  classes  to  a  better  position  of  demo- 
cratic responsibility  and  civic  prosperity,  must  be  the  wish 
of  all  disinterested  observers  of  Latin  America.  The 
distinctive  lights  and  shades  of  life  which  it  gives  to  the 
New  World  are  not  necessarily,  it  cannot  be  doubted, 
inconsonant  with  advancement. 


GENERAL  PHYSICAL  AND  SOCIAL  CONDITIONS  57 

The  scenery  and  landscape  of  Spanish  America,  although 
in  places  extremely  beautiful,  nowhere  vie  with  the  soft 
beauty  peculiar  to  England,  for  nowhere  is  that  character 
of  countryside  found  in  the  three  Americas.  Nevertheless 
certain  regions  are  soft  and  romantic,  accentuated  by  the 
striking  and  the  stupendous  in  their  surrounding  regions, 
v.here  nature  has  worked  on  a  vast  scale.  What  the  trav- 
eller from  Britain  misses  in  North  and  South  America  is 
that  medium  of  climate,  topography,  and  scenery  which  is 
characteristic  of  the  British  Isles.  Between  the  stupendous 
mountain  ranges,  the  vast  arid  deserts,  and  the  profusion 
of  tropical  vegetation,  there  is  rarely  discovered  the  happy 
mean  of  wood  and  stream  and  pastoral  countryside  of  the 
favoured  islands  of  Britain,  and  this  moulds,  to  some  extent, 
it  cannot  be  doubted,  the  character  of  the  people.  Rural 
life  in  these  communities,  the  village  and  the  parish,  does 
not  exist  as  known  in  Britain. 

The  traveller  who  adventures  away  from  the  railways 
and  towns  in  Latin  America  is  greatly  thrown  upon  his  own 
resources  and  finds  himself  constantly  close  to  nature  and 
to  the  primitive  virtues  and  defects  of  mankind  therein. 
The  atmospheric  effects  in  the  arid  lands  of  Latin  America 
and  in  the  high  Andes  are  of  a  curious  nature  often.  The 
mirage  of  the  deserts  is  a  not  uncommon  feature,  on  the  arid 
Mexican  plateau  and  on  the  scorched  plains  of  the  Chilean 
and  Peruvian  Saharas,  or  littoral,  and  travellers  at  times 
have  been  deceived  by  visions  of  water,  imaginary  pictures 
of  rivers,  towns,  palaces,  trees,  and  crowds  of  people  ;  and 
in  some  instances  the  inexperienced  have  almost  been  lured 
to  destruction  in  the  belief  that  they  were  approaching 
water  or  a  settlement.  The  utter  silence  of  the  sun-beat 
desert  is,  on  occasions,  a  silence  that  seems  to  speak,  as  if  the 
sunlight  produced  some  sound  on  the  tympanum  of  the  ear  ; 
and  there  are  mysterious  desert  noises  at  times  produced 
by  "  singing  "  sand  dunes  and  other  agencies.  In  the 
Andes  remarkable  mist  effects  are  produced.  Perhaps  the 
traveller,  descending  from  some  high  upland,  approaches 
what  appears  to  be  the  surface  of  a  billowy  sea  or  lake, 
whose  edge  laps  the  rocky  road,  but  which  in  reality  is  a 


58  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 

thick  bed  of  mist  occupying  the  whole  valley,  with  an  upper 
surface  broken  into  mist-billows,  through  which  man  and 
horse  plunge,  leaving  the  sunlight  above  ;  and,  on  gaining 
the  lowlands  and  looking  upwards  he  finds  he  has  descended 
through  the  clouds.  A  phenomen  observed  occasionally, 
although  rarely,  is  that  of  the  anthelion,  the  rainbow- 
coloured  halo  or  chromatic  nimbus  projected  upon  the 
surface  of  the  mist-sea  at  the  moment  of  approaching  it, 
from  the  traveller's  head,  by  the  rays  of  the  sun.  These 
mist  banks  in  the  valleys  disperse  often  as  the  heat  of  the 
rising  sun  increases,  and  vanish  rapidly,  bursting  upwards 
and  dispersing  in  a  remarkable  manner  ;  whilst  at  night, 
from  some  high  point,  they  may  be  observed  collecting  and 
advancing,  engulfing  the  landscape,  and  rolling  against  the 
precipices  like  an  advancing  sea.  The  sunset  effects  upon 
high  mountain  peaks  are  often  of  extreme  beauty.  The  base 
of  the  peak  may  be  wrapped  in  the  purple  depths  of  the 
advancing  darkness,  whilst  the  snowy  portion  above  is  dyed 
carmine  and  gleams  like  a  ruby,  set  against  the  darkening 
sky  behind.  The  same  effect  is  observed  on  mountains  which 
are  not  snow  covered,  although  less  marked.  These  effects 
are,  of  course,  not  confined  to  the  Andes,  but  are  common 
to  other  mountain  systems. 

For  purposes  of  description,  by  reason  of  their  geographi- 
cal situation,  the  Latin  American  republics  fall  into  several 
groups,  and  will  so  be  considered.  Brazil  stands  alone, 
both  geographically  and  by  reason  of  its  enormous  size. 
Argentina,  Uruguay,  and  Paraguay  may  be  classed  as  the 
republics  of  the  River  Plate.  Ecuador,  Peru,  Bolivia,  and 
Chile  are  described  as  the  republics  of  the  Andes  and  the 
Pacific.  Colombia  and  Venezuela  are  the  northern  republics 
of  South  America,  facing  upon  what  has  been  termed  the 
"  American  Mediterranean."  Under  the  heading  of  Central 
America  are  classed  Guatemala,  Salvador,  Honduras, 
Nicaragua,  Costa  Rica,  and  Panama ;  and  British  Hon- 
duras forms  part  of  the  region  embraced.  Mexico  stands 
apart  as  forming  a  portion  of  the  North  American  continent. 
The  island  republics  of  Cuba  and  of  Haiti  are  naturally 
units.     The  various  possessions  of  foreign  powers  in  Latin 


GENERAL  PHYSICAL  AND  SOCIAL  CONDITIONS    59 


America,  such  as  the  Guianas,  the  Antilles,  the  Falkland 
Isles,  British  Honduras,  and  others,  whilst  geographically 
they  are  part  of  Latin  America,  can  scarcely  be  so  considered 
racially. 

The  areas  and  populations  of  the  Latin  American  repub- 
lics, as  before  observed,  can,  in  some  cases,  be  stated  only 
approximately,  or  as  estimates.  They  include,  for  the 
Andean  countries,  certain  debatable  territories,  as  described 
elsewhere,  and  are  as  follows  : — 


Country 

Area 

Population 

Square  miles 

Brazil  .. 

3,218,130 

25,000,000 

Argentina 

1,135,840 

7,890,000 

Mexico 

767,000 

17,000,000 

Bolivia 

708,000 

2,800,000 

Peru     . , 

700,000 

4,600,000 

Colombia 

438,000 

5,000,000 

Venezuela 

394,000 

3,000,000 

Chile     .  . 

292,000 

3,770,000 

Paraguay 

196,000 

1,000,000 

Ecuador 

116,000 

1,700,000 

Uruguay 

72,200 

1,430,000 

Nicaragua 

49,200 

740,000 

Guatemala 

48,300 

2,200,000 

Honduras 

.              46,200 

600,000 

Panama 

32.400 

350,000 

Costa  Rica 

23,000 

460,000 

Salvador 

7.225 

2,000,000 

To  which  may  be  added 

Cuba    . . 

45,900 

2,500,000 

A  total  approximate  area  of  8,250,000  square  miles 
and  an  approximate  population,  in  round  numbers,  of 
82,000,000  people. 

The  republics  of  Santo  Domingo  and  Haiti,  occupying 
the  Island  of  Santo  Domingo,  have  areas  respectively  of 
18,045  square  miles  and  10,204  square  miles,  and  popu- 
lations of  approximately  700,000  and  1,600,000;  Haiti 
being  a  negro  republic  and  Santo  Domingo  the  oldest 
Spanish  settlement  in  the  New  World. 


6o  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH  AMERICA 


CHAPTER    II 
THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  BRAZIL 

Stretching  far  around  the  eastern  and  northern  shores 
of  South  America,  and  penetrating  into  the  most  remote 
regions  of  the  great  continent,  hes  the  huge,  incoherent 
repubhc  of  Brazil  :  a  land  whose  associations  are  redolent 
of  colonial  romance,  of  empire  and  slavery,  of  wealth  in  the 
past,  wrung  from  the  tropic  cane-fields,  from  diamonds  and 
gold  ;  of  vast  expanses  and  sunny  uplands,  of  mysterious 
rivers  and  dark,  impenetrable  forests  :  a  land  which 
nevertheless  contains  to-day  some  of  the  most  progressive 
elements  in  the  Latin  American  world.  The  United  States 
of  Brazil,  as  the  Portuguese-speaking  republic  of  South 
America  is  officially  described,  is  by  far  the  largest  political 
division  of  Latin  America.  It  exceeds  in  size  the  United 
States  of  North  America,  excluding  Alaska  ;  its  area  being 
estimated  at  3,270,000  square  miles.  From  north  to  south 
the  country  measures  nearly  2,600  miles  and  from  east  to 
west  nearly  2,500  miles.  The  length  of  the  coastline  of 
Brazil  is  almost  equal  to  the  combined  lengths  of  the  Atlantic 
and  Pacific  coast  lines  of  the  United  States  ;  and  the  country 
is  larger  than  the  whole  of  Europe  without  Russia.  The 
population  of  this  immense  region  is  estimated  approxi- 
mately at  25,000,000  inhabitants, 

Brazil  is  distinguished  from  its  neighbours  in  having  been 
the  only  self-contained  empire  in  America,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  brief  imperial  regimen  of  Mexico.  As  regards 
extent  of  territory,  Brazil  remains  an  empire.  It  sprawls 
so  extensively  across  the  continent  that  its  frontiers  are 
contiguous  with  every  South  American  repubhc  except 
Ecuador  and  Chile  ;  a  giant  which  has  always  been  accused 


THE  UNITED   STATES   OF   BRAZIL  6l 

of  perennial  endeavour  to  absorb  portions  of  its  neighbours' 
possessions.  From  the  earliest  colonial  times  the  Portu- 
guese were  trespassers,  and  this  policy  has  given  rise 
to  the  constant  perturbation  of  Brazil's  neighbours  upon 
the  Pacific  coast.  In  the  regions  of  the  upper  Amazon 
and  its  tributaries  great  areas  of  savage  territory  are  still 
in  dispute,  and  have  been  made  the  subject  of  surveys, 
treaties,  and  arbitration  ever  since  the  early  time  when  the 
crowns  of  Spain  and  Portugal  invoked  papal  decrees  in 
support  of  their  respective  sovereignties  in  America. 

The  Atlantic  coast  of  South  America,  of  which  Brazil 
and  Argentina  possess  the  major  portion,  must  be  regarded 
as  of  greater  economic  importance  than  the  Pacific  coast. 
South  America  slopes  away  from  the  wall  of  the  Andes, 
which  parallels  the  western  coast,  leaving  but  a  narrow 
littoral  between  those  mountains  and  the  sea  ;  and  the 
continent  has  its  natural  outlet  upon  the  Atlantic  and  the 
Caribbean  sea.  Under  present  methods  of  transport  the 
Andes  must  remain  an  obstacle  to  the  economic  develop- 
ment of  Chile,  Peru,  and  Ecuador  from  the  east.  The 
harbours  of  the  Atlantic  coast  are  of  far  greater  capacity  and 
importance  than  the  generally  exposed  roadsteads  of  the 
Pacific  side  of  the  continent,  which  possesses  no  river 
mouths  of  the  importance  of  those  of  Brazil  and  Argentina. 

The  population  of  Brazil  cannot  be  estimated  with 
anything  but  approximate  approach  to  accuracy.  The 
defective  methods  of  census-taking  and  more  or  less  arbitrary 
estimates,  together  with  the  remoteness  of  certain  regions 
and  the  dislike  of  the  natives  of  the  outlying  districts  for 
enumeration,  render  the  returns  faulty.  The  total  number 
of  inhabitants,  according  to  different  authorities,  has  been 
variously  estimated  at  17,000,000  to  25,000,000 ;  20,000,000 
being  taken  as  a  general  basis.  Regarding  the  country  as 
a  whole,  Brazil  contains  more  men  than  women.  It  has 
also  a  low  proportion  of  only  about  7  per  cent,  of  foreigners. 
Of  the  population  of  the  capital  25  per  cent,  are  foreigners, 
and  the  excess  of  women  over  men  exists  only  in  those 
states  which  specially  attract  immigrants  from  abroad,  who 
are  almost  entirely  males.     The  proportion  of  foreigners  is 


62  SOUTH  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 

increasing,  nearly  200,000  immigrants  having  entered  in 
1913,  forming  a  large  increase  over  1910.  But  post-war 
immigration  does  not  reach  these  figures. 

Statistics  of  persons  of  colour,  of  African  descent,  are 
unreliable  in  Brazil.  A  process  of  absorption  is  taking 
pl'ace  with  the  considerable  negro  element,  which,  whilst 
it  has  a  deleterious  effect  upon  the  nation  at  the  present 
time,  and  will  doubtless  make  itself  felt  for  a  generation, 
should  result  in  the  ultimate  formation  of  a  tj^pe.  Brazil 
differs  from  almost  all  the  other  republics  of  Latin  America 
in  having  the  negro  as  one  of  the  constituents  of  its  people. 
It  is  to  the  free  admixture  of  the  white  colonists,  the  native 
Indians,  and  the  men  of  African  race,  who  were  introduced 
into  the  country  as  slaves,  that  the  real  Brazilian  nationality 
is  due.  The  Portuguese  and  Spanish  colonists  of  America 
intermixed  with  the  coloured  races  to  an  extent  which  was 
unknown  in  Anglo-America,  and  the  difficult  problem  of 
the  colour  line  which  exists  in  the  United  States  has  no 
place  in  Brazil.  The  early  policy  of  Portugal  was  to 
encourage  the  union  of  the  white  man  and  the  coloured 
woman,  and  its  effects  have  remained  in  the  condition 
wherein  no  prejudice  is  entertained  against  the  coloured 
race.  Nevertheless  the  Portuguese  republic  does  not 
escape  altogether  the  castigation  resulting  from  the  past 
enormity  of  slavery,  and  the  low  negro  element  in  the  sea- 
ports and  on  the  plantations  is  a  degrading  feature  of 
national  life. 

The  evolution  of  self-government  in  Brazil  has  been  a 
difficult  one  ;  although  its  history  has  varied  greatly  from 
that  of  the  Spanish  American  republics.  Independent 
monarchy  survived  for  sixty  years,  and  came  to  an  end  in 
the  bloodless  revolution  of  1889 ;  precipitated  by  the 
abolition  of  slavery  in  1888.  The  emancipation  of  the  negro 
brought  about  the  inevitable  punishment  which  the  system 
of  slavery  has  sooner  or  later  inflicted  on  those  communities 
who  have  maintained  it.  The  foundations  of  Brazilian 
society  were  thrown  into  chaos,  and  plantations  were  aban- 
doned by  hundreds,  due  to  the  loss  of  labour.  The  slave- 
owning  and  land-owning  classes,  alienated  from  the  imperial 


THE  UNITED   STATES  OF  BRAZIL  63 

government  by  the  Act  of  Abolition,  brought  about  the  fall 
of  the  monarchy,  and  this  was  followed  by  the  rule  of 
mihtary  despotism,  which  has  never  entirely  disappeared 
from  Brazil.  Whatever  evils,  however,  might  have  resulted 
from  the  overthrow  of  an  imperial  regimen  must  be  viewed  as 
necessary  adjuncts  of  democracy  in  such  a  situation,  and 
that  democracy  once  established  must  be  regarded  as  a 
measure  of  progress. 

The  constitution  and  federal  form  of  government  which 
were  adopted  on  the  fall  of  the  empire  have  invested  the 
ruling  powers  of  the  nation  in  three  branches  of  govern- 
ment, partially  independent  of  each  other,  modelled  largely 
upon  the  constitution  of  the  United  States,  and  known 
respectively  as  the  Executive,  Legislative,  and  Judicial, 
represented  by  the  President  and  his  Cabinet,  the  Congress, 
composed  of  two  chambers,  and  the  Supreme  Tribunal. 
The  republic  is  divided  into  twenty  states,  each  with  its 
own  administration.  These  states  are  therefore  autono- 
mous, and  conserve  their  right  of  control  over  all  public 
lands,  mines  and  industries,  and  over  aU  local  affairs. 
Primary  education  is  supported  and  supervised  by  each 
state,  and  secondary  and  superior  education  by  the  federal 
government.  The  foreign  affairs  of  the  nation  are  directed 
exclusively  by  the  federal  government,  as  are  the  main- 
tenance of  the  army  and  navy  and  the  imposing  customs 
house  dues.  The  president  is  elected  by  direct  vote,  and 
the  cabinet  ministers  are  appointed  by  him.  The  members 
of  the  senate  chamber  and  of  the  chamber  of  deputies  are 
elected  by  direct  suffrage  ;  the  first  for  a  period  of  nine, 
the  second  for  a  period  of  three  years.  Deputies  serve 
under  the  system  of  proportional  representation,  and  are 
elected  on  a  basis  of  one  for  each  70,000  of  the  population, 
but  at  least  four  are  appointed  for  each  state,  whatever 
be  the  population.  There  are  three  senators  for  each  state. 
The  senators  are  required  to  be  over  thirty-five  years  of 
age,  and  both  senators  and  deputies  are  paid.  At  the 
present  time  the  Senate  chamber  contains  sixty-three 
members,  three  for  each  state  and  three  for  the  federal 
district.    Although   elected   for   nine   years,   one-third   of 


64  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH  AMERICA 

each  delegation  of  senators  is  renewed  every  three  years. 
Both  senators  and  deputies  are  immune  from  legal  process, 
except  in  certain  specified  circumstances.  The  regular 
annual  sessions  of  the  Legislature  are  of  four  months'  dura- 
tion, but  when  circumstances  require  they  may  be  prolonged. 

The  president  is  elected  for  a  term  of  four  years.  He 
must  be  a  native  of  the  repubHc  and  over  thirty-five  years 
of  age  ;  and  upon  retiring  he  is  ineligible  for  a  second 
successive  term.  Similiar  conditions  attend  the  office  of 
vice-president.  The  president  receives  a  salary  of  120,000 
milreis,  and  the  vice-president  36,000  milreis.  The 
Cabinet  ministers  are  six  in  number  ;  those  for  Foreign 
Affairs,  War  and  Marine  ;  Communications  ;  Public  Works  ; 
Finance ;  Agriculture,  Industry  and  Commerce.  They 
are  responsible  to  the  president  alone  for  their  advisory 
acts,  and  take  no  part  in  the  session  of  Congress.  They 
ma3^  be  removed  or  replaced  at  the  will  of  the  president. 
The  president  issues  decrees  and  regulations  for  the  execu- 
tion of  laws  and  resolutions  approved  by  Congress,  or  he 
may  ignore  or  veto  them.  This  veto  may  be  over-ridden 
by  a  vote  of  a  two-thirds  majority  of  each  chamber  ;  and 
any  act  of  Congress  which  has  not  been  vetoed,  but  left 
unsigned  by  the  president  for  ten  days,  becomes  law.  Further 
offices  of  the  president  are  those  of  commanding  the  armed 
forces  of  the  republic,  of  nominating  diplomatic  representa- 
tives and  the  members  of  the  Supreme  Tribunal,  for  the 
approval  of  the  Senate  :  as  well  as  appointing  the  prefects 
of  the  national  capital.  The  president  advises  Congress  in 
an  annual  message  at  the  opening  of  the  session  and  is 
empowered  to  negotiate  ad  referendtim  treaties  with  foreign 
nations,  to  declare  war  in  case  of  invasion  and  martial  law 
in  times  of  serious  political  or  other  disorder.  He  may  be 
impeached  for  his  official  acts  and  suspended  from  office  by 
the  Senate,  or  tried  for  criminal  offences  by  the  Supreme 
Tribunal. 

The  Supreme  Tribunal,  or  judicial,  is  composed  of  a  court 
of  fifteen  judges  in  the  national  capital,  and  a  court  in  each 
state  capital.  The  appointment  of  the  judges  is  for  life, 
and  they  are  removable  only  by  judicial  sentence  or  impeach- 


THE   UNITED   STATES   OF   BRAZIL 


65 


ment.  The  position  of  solicitor-general  to  the  nation  is 
held  by  a  member  of  the  Supreme  Tribunal.  These  func- 
tionaries are  appointed  by  the  president  with  the  approval 
of  the  Senate,  but  nominally  the  tribunal  is  independent  of 
the  control  of  the  Executive,  and  it  appoints  its  own  presid- 
ing officers.  It  possesses  original  and  appellate  jurisdiction, 
and  authority  to  decide  upon  the  constitutionality  of  laws 
and  acts  of  the  state  governments.  Each  state  possesses 
its  own  independent  local  courts  and  laws,  subject,  however, 
to  the  review  of  the  Supreme  Tribunal.  The  federal  district 
possesses  a  municipal  council  instead  of  a  legislative,  with 
its  own  system  of  municipal  and  higher  courts.  The  civil 
code  of  Brazil  is  based  upon  Roman  law.  The  army  and 
navy  are  subject  to  special  laws,  with  military  courts, 
and  are  immune  from  civil  process. 

The  twenty  states  are  divided,  for  purposes  of  local 
government  and  law-giving,  into  judicial  districts,  known 
as  comarcas,  and  townships  or  municipios,  which  are  the 
smallest  self-governing  divisions.  The  permanence  of  repre- 
sentative government  and  institution  is  safe-guarded  by  the 
necessary  provision  for  autonomy  of  the  local  districts,  in 
the  constitution.  For  ecclesiastical  purposes  the  parish, 
or  parochia,  is  maintained.     The  states  are  : — 


States 

Capital 

Area 
Sq.   Kilometres 

Pop.   1921 

Amazonas 

Manaos 

1,894,724 

378,476 

Para 

Belem 

1,149,712 

809,886 

Maranhao 

S.  Luiz 

459,884 

683.645 

Piauhy 

Therezina 

301,797 

441.350 

Ceara   . . 

Fortaleza 

104,250 

1,179.197 

Rio  Grande  do  Norte 

Natal 

57.485 

424,308 

Parahyba 

Parahyba  .  . 

74.731 

630,171 

Pemambuco   . . 

Recife 

128.395 

1,649,023 

Alagoas 

Maceio 

58.491 

848,526 

Sergipe 

Aracaju 

39,090 

426,234 

Bahia 

Sao  Salvador 

426.427 

2,746,443 

Espirito  Santo 

Victoria     . . 

44.839 

362,409 

Rio  de  Janeiro 

Nictheroy 

68,982 

1,325.929 

Sao  Paulo 

Sao  Paulo 

290,876 

3.700,350 

Parana 

Curytiba    .  . 

221,319 

554-934 

Santa  Catharina 

Florianopolis 

74.156 

463.997 

Rio  Grande  do  Sul     .  . 

Porto  Alegre 

236,553 

1,682.736 

Minas  Geraes 

Bello  Horizonte    . 

574.855 

4.6-^8,553 

Goyaz 

Goyaz 

747.311 

428.661 

Matto  Grosso 

Cuyaba 

.        1.378,783 

191,145 

Districto  Federal 

1,116 

1,500,000 

Territorio  do  Acre     . . 



152,000 

"  86,638 

8.485-776 


25,142,611 


66  SOUTH  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 

These  figures  are  from  the  last  census,  as  suppHed  by 
the  government. 

Brazil,  for  purposes  of  general  description,  may  be  divided 
broadly  into  three  regions,  those  of  Northern  Brazil,  Central 
Brazil  and  Southern  Brazil,  distinguished  from  each  other 
by  their  products  rather  than  physically.  The  northern 
region  is  that  dominated  by  the  great  Amazon  river  and  its 
affluents,  and  includes  the  states  of  Amazonas,  an  enormous 
area  of  territory  upon  the  northern  bank  of  the  river  ;  Para, 
upon  the  southern  bank,  also  a  very  large  state  ;  Maranhao, 
upon  the  coast,  Piauhy,  and  part  of  the  state  of  Matto 
Grosso.  This  region  principally  comprises  the  Amazon 
lowlands,  which  are  covered  with  dense  forest  growth  and 
are  subject  to  an  excessively  hot,  tropical  climate  and  heavy 
rainfall.  There  is  little  if  any  change  in  the  seasons  in  the 
forest  region,  except  for  variation  in  the  rainfall.  This 
enormous  region  of  Northern  Brazil,  two  and  a  third  million 
square  miles  in  area,  is  very  thinly  populated,  having  an 
average  of  less  than  one  person  to  the  square  mile.  It  pro- 
duces 96  per  cent,  of  the  rubber  exported  by  Brazil,  to- 
gether with  the  Brazil  nuts,  and  about  a  fifth  of  the  cocoa 
and  a  tenth  of  the  cotton  exports  of  the  republic. 

The  region  comprising  Central  Brazil  is  much  smaller  in 
extent,  having  an  area  of  about  340,000  square  miles.  This 
is  much  more  thickly  populated  than  the  northern  region, 
and  is  of  greater  importance  industrially.  It  includes  the 
states  of  Ceara,  Rio  Grande  do  Norte,  Parahyba,  Pernam- 
buco,  Alagoas,  Sergipe,  and  Bahia,  all  forming  part  of  the 
Atlantic  littoral.  Although  lying  in  the  tropics,  the  high- 
land character  of  a  part  of  the  region  and  the  mountains 
which  cross  it  ensure  a  lower  average  temperature.  The 
agricultural  and  pastoral  industries  are  the  most  important, 
yielding  some  of  the  principal  products,  such  as  tobacco  in 
considerable  quantities,  96  per  cent,  of  the  export  being 
made  from  the  region  ;  84  per  cent,  of  the  cotton,  almost 
the  whole  of  the  sugar,  and  'jj  per  cent,  of  the  cocoa. 
Nearly  all  the  goat  and  sheep  skins  exported  by  Brazil  are 
produced  in  these  states,  and  70  per  cent,  of  the  Brazihan 
diamonds. 


THE   UNITED   STATES  OF  BRAZIL  67 

The  southern  division  has  an  area  of  584,000  square  miles, 
and  although  small  in  comparison  with  the  northern,  is 
the  most  important  part  of  Brazil,  both  in  point  of  popula- 
tion and  as  regards  native  products.  Within  this  area  are 
the  states  of  Espirito  Santo,  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Minas  Geraes, 
Sao  Paulo,  Parana,  Santa  Catherina,  Rio  Grande  do  Sul, 
and  the  Federal  Capital.  These  states  embrace  the  littoral 
to  the  boundary  of  Brazil  with  the  republic  of  Uruguay. 
The  region  is  traversed  by  a  great  plateau,  running  from 
north  to  south,  parallel  with  the  coast,  and  is  traversed  by  the 
tropic  of  Capricorn,  slightly  to  the  south  of  Rio  de  Janeiro. 
The  elevation  of  the  plateau  induces  a  more  equable  climate, 
and  the  southern  portion,  being  outside  the  torrid  zone,  is 
temperate.  With  its  fertile  soil,  drained  and  watered  by 
numerous  rivers,  the  region  is  an  exceedingly  valuable  one 
agriculturally,  and  furnishes  as  its  staple  product  the  great 
coffee  crop  of  Brazil,  whose  export  provides  nearly  three- 
quarters  of  the  world's  supply  of  the  berry.  Stock-breeding 
is  also  carried  on,  and  the  products  of  the  industry  are  ex- 
ported. The  Yerha  Mate,  or  Paraguay  tea,  is  cultivated 
in  this  region,  and  the  mining  industry  carried  on  in  certain 
districts  produces  almost  all  the  gold  and  manganese 
exported  from  the  republic.  It  is  principally  within  these 
states  that  the  great  railway  network  of  Brazil  exists  ;  the 
various  lines  which  constitute  so  marked  a  feature  of  foreign 
industrial  enterprise  in  the  country. 

The  status  of  the  inhabitants  of  Brazil  is  greatly  bound 
up  with  the  matter  of  land  tenure.  Agriculture,  the  great 
basis  of  Brazilian  industry,  is  controlled  principally  by  large 
estate  owners,  of  which  the  fazendas  or  coffee  plantations, 
are  the  most  typical.  These  great  estates  are  the  homes  of  a 
landed  aristocracy,  and  in  some  respects  are  virtually  small 
sovereignties.  After  the  abolition  of  slavery,  a  system  of 
colonisation  for  foreign  immigrants  was  established  in  order 
to  provide  labour  for  the  estates,  which  had  been  depleted  of 
their  hands  by  the  abandonment  of  their  work  by  the  negroes, 
who  went  to  the  towns  to  a  considerable  extent  after  their 
emancipation.  A  great  wave  of  immigration  grew  to  being 
under  the  state-aided  colonisation  and  contract  systems. 


6$  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 

which  lasted  until  1902,  bringing  more  than  a  million 
Itahans  into  the  country ;  and  the  labour  of  these  immigrants 
helped  to  develop  the  rich  coffee-growing  fazendas  of 
the  state  of  Sao  Paulo,  which  became  the  wealthiest 
part  of  the  republic.  But  the  Italian  labourers  derived 
little  permanent  benefit  from  this  prosperous  industry, 
although  at  certain  times  they  made  good  wages.  During 
the  years  of  prosperity  brought  about  by  profitable  coffee- 
growing  large  numbers  of  the  Italians  settled  on  the  planta- 
tions, and  were  tolerably  well  treated,  but  when  the  price 
of  coffee  fell  their  wages  declined  with  it,  and  they  suffered 
considerable  hardships.  Consequent  upon  these  conditions 
the  Italian  Government  sent  a  commission  to  report  upon  the 
condition  of  the  colonists,  and  as  a  result  prohibited  the 
system  of  free  emigration  to  Brazil.  This  prohibition  took 
effect  in  1902,  and  Italian  immigration  materially  decreased, 
numbering  in  the  following  year  only  9,000  or  10,000,  due 
to  the  restrictive  action.  The  colonists  became  unsettled 
and  in  many  cases  habitual  nomads,  leaving  one  state  for 
another  and  even  one  repubhc  for  another  at  the  end  of 
the  season  ;  and  even  the  best-disposed  of  the  estate  owners 
cannot  retain  more  than  a  portion  of  their  labour.  At  the 
present  time  many  of  the  Italians  would  not  leave  the 
country  if  they  were  able  to  purchase  or  obtain  small 
holdings,  but  the  large  estates  are  never,  or  rarely,  subdivided. 
This  condition  of  conserving  large  landed  estates  obtains  in 
nearly  all  Latin  American  countries,  and  tends  to  shut  off 
both  natives  and  immigrants  from  participation  in  the  more 
accessible  and  fertile  lands.  These  conditions  were  specially 
marked  in  the  great  coffee-producing  state  of  Sao  Paulo. 
Regarded  from  a  democratic  standpoint  labour  on  the  great 
estates  is  a  species  of  peonage  or  serfdom,  and  order  is 
maintained  in  many  cases  only  because  the  workers  are 
illiterate,  or  are  prevented  by  local  decrees  from  forming 
societies  for  their  own  protection.  The  restrictions  con- 
cerning emigration  by  the  Italian  government  have  now 
been  removed. 

The  Italian  population  in  the  state  of  Sao  Paulo  numbers 
over  1,000,000  and  forms  the  most  compact  colony  of  Italians 


THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  BRAZIL  69 

that  has  been  created  overseas.  The  Italian  colonists  are 
easily  assimilated,  as  a  rule,  and  are  highly  esteemed,  the 
more  so  when  their  numbers  decrease  and  their  services  are 
less  easily  obtained. 

Immigration  and  colonisation  in  Brazil  steadily  increased, 
and  for  the  year  1913  nearly  200,000  immigrants  were 
registered,  an  increase  of  20,000  over  the  previous  year. 
Of  the  total  76,700  were  Portuguese,  30,900  Italians,  8,000 
Russians,  with  10,800  Turks,  8,000  Germans,  850  British, 
41,000  Spaniards,  and  slightly  over  1,500  French  and  7,000 
Japanese.  At  the  present  time  there  exist  in  Brazil  thirty- 
eight  foreign  settlements  or  colonies.  The  German  popu- 
lation was  estimated  in  1906  at  350,000  to  500,000,  chiefly 
settled  in  colonies  in  the  southern  states,  where  they  form 
a  desirable  community.  In  1920  the  total  immigration 
had  fallen  to  71,000,  of  which  34,000  were  Portuguese, 
10,000  Itahans,  and  9,000  Spaniards. 

The  native  people  of  Brazil,  as  regards  the  upper  classes, 
are  well-educated,  and  of  somewhat  old-world  refinement 
and  character  in  certain  respects  :  the  aristocratic,  feudal 
element  which  grew  up  around  the  monarchy  having  been 
productive  and  conservative  of  these  qualities.  Their 
chief  defect  is  that,  as  a  class,  they  remain  generally  oblivious 
to  the  great  bulk  of  poor  and  ignorant  population  around 
them,  half  savage  in  certain  regions  ;  a  reproach  which, 
however,  is  to  be  laid  upon  all  Latin  American  oligarchies. 
In  business  and  in  the  development  of  their  factories  and 
industrial  institutions  they  are  clever  and  energetic  ;  and 
efforts  for  the  improvement  of  the  working  population  in 
certain  districts  have  undoubtably  been  made.  The 
imaginative  temperament  of  the  Brazilians  and  the  power 
of  the  Portuguese  language  for  poetic  expression,  together 
with  the  love  of  art,  music,  and  literature  strongly  in- 
herited from  their  progenitors,  the  Latin  race  of  the  Old 
World  has  led  to  a  marked  production  of  native  poetry. 
In  science,  however,  little  has  been  done  of  a  practical 
nature,  and  the  exploration  of  the  country  and  its  resources 
has  been   due  mainly   to   foreign   scientists.     They  are  a 


70  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 

pleasure-loving  and  happily  disposed  people  ;  and  their 
women  are  vivacious  and  handsome,  with  their  own  marked 
type  of  beauty,  which  differs  considerably  from  the  usual 
Spanish  American  type.  The  Brazilians  must  be  regarded 
as  a  virile  people,  full  of  possibilities  and  productive  of 
excellent  human  material  for  the  moulding  of  democracy 
in  the  coming  years. 

Notwithstanding  that  the  Brazilians  have  a  strong  natural 
taste  for  literature,  art,  and  science,  the  country  suffers 
greatly  from  the  backward  condition  of  education.  Not 
more  than  20  per  cent,  of  the  population  can  read  and 
write,  the  lowest  rate  of  illiteracy  being  in  the  southern  half 
of  the  republic.  As  primary  instruction  is  supported  by 
the  various  states,  the  condition  is  in  local  hands  ;  and  this 
instruction  is  free,  but  not  compulsory.  Private  schools 
are  numerous  and  considered  to  be  the  most  efficient,  but 
higher  education  is  principally  confined  to  professional 
schools.  The  love  of  scientific  titles  is  a  passion  with  the 
Brazilians.  Soon  after  Independence,  and  while  they  were 
still  under  the  influence  of  the  ideas  of  the  mother  country — 
which  bequeathed  to  them  the  Catholic  religion  as  the 
religion  of  the  state — the  ambition  of  every  family  which 
could  afford  to  give  a  superior  education  to  its  son  was  that 
he  should  become  a  priest.  Afterwards  the  ambition  was  to 
make  him  a  "  doctor,"  which  is  the  title  given  not  only  to 
medical  men,  but  also  to  bachelors  of  law,  to  engineers  of  all 
kinds,  and  even  to  the  officers  of  certain  military  engineer 
corps,  lately  extinct,  as  also  to  staff  officers.  The  Brazilian 
people,  although  theoretically  democratic,  have  a  tendency 
to  look  upon  the  educated  as  beings  of  a  higher  class.  "  The 
proof  of  this  is  that  the  authorities  are  almost  all  '  doctors,' 
and  that  families  which  have  become  rich  in  other  or 
essentially  lucrative  professions,  sometimes  make  all  their 
sons  '  doctors  '  and  marry  all  their  daughters  to  men  with 
the  same  title.*  " 

This  condition,  however,  has  been  altered  of  late,  due  to 
new  laws  ;    and  the  methods  of  higher  education  in  Brazil 
differ  somewhat  from  those  in  other  Latin  American  countries, 
*  A  Brazilian  professor,  in  The  Times. 


THE  UNITED   STATES   OF  BRAZIL  71 

in  that  Brazil  possesses  no  universities.  The  difference  is 
to  some  extent  one  of  form  rather  than  reahty,  the  pro- 
fessional schools,  as  of  medicine,  engineering,  law,  etc., 
existing  separately  instead  of  under  one  management. 
The  national  schools  of  the  professions,  such  as  those  of 
medicine  at  Rio  de  Janeiro  and  Bahia,  or  of  engineering  and 
law,  enjoyed,  prior  to  the  new  educational  law  enacted  in 
191 1,  practically  a  university  prestige,  unattained  by  local 
or  private  schools.  The  conferring  of  the  doctorate  was 
accompanied  by  the  ceremony  and  solemnity  attending 
the  universities  of  other  lands,  and  the  degree  possessed 
national  privileges.  But  this  has  been  abolished  by  the 
new  law,  under  which  Brazil  has  decided  that  the  title  of 
doctor  is  undemocratic.  The  cap  and  gown,  and  the 
aristocratic-seeming  rights  and  prerogatives  of  the  old 
faculties  and  the  elaborate  ceremonies  connected  with  the 
conferring  of  the  coveted  doctorate,  are  now  abolished  ;  and 
the  graduate  receives  in  their  place  a  simple  certificate  of 
completion  of  study,  which  permits  him  to  practise  his 
profession.  The  national  schools,  which  formerly  enjoyed, 
in  law,  medicine,  and  engineering,  such  rights  as  belonged  to 
the  universities  of  the  middle  ages,  have  lost  the  authority 
conferred  by  federal  monopoly,  and  at  the  present  time  any 
state  of  the  republic,  or  any  city,  sect,  or  society,  may  set 
up  its  professional  school  or  university,  whose  certificates  of 
graduation  will  be  equally  accepted  in  all  parts  of  the 
country.  As  long  as  such  an  institution  remains  self- 
supporting  it  has  full  freedom  as  regards  curriculum, 
scholars  and  professors,  but  when  a  subsidy  from  the 
government  is  asked,  and  this  generally  follows  in  a  com- 
munity where  endowments  are  difficult  to  raise,  its  regimen 
must  conform  to  the  government  requirements  :  a  system 
which  in  practice  is  expected  to  make  for  full  efficiency. 
Physicians,  lawyers,  engineers,  pharmacists  and  others 
may  be  produced  by  federal,  state  or  private  schools  under 
the  new  enactments,  and  instead  of  a  small  number  of 
national  faculties  of  the  sciences  as  formerly,  a  far  larger 
number,  and  more  widely  distributed,  may  result.  This 
"  democratisation  "    of    higher    education    in    the    largest 


72  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 

republic  of  Latin  America  is  a  condition  of  considerable 
interest.  The  government  hopes  thereby  to  reduce  the 
number  of  those  who  aspire  to  purely  academic  honours, 
and  to  direct  the  intellect  of  their  youths  to  fields  of  indus- 
trial and  practical  usefulness. 

The  prevailing  religion  in  Brazil  is  that  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  church,  which  embraces  more  than  three-quarters 
of  the  population.  The  Protestants  of  various  denomina- 
tions number  about  150,000  persons.  There  are  about 
5,000  of  other  faiths  and  10,000  of  no  religious  profession. 
The  un-Christianised  Indians  number  somewhat  less  than 
three-quarters  of  a  million.  The  large  number  of  foreign 
immigrants  constantly  arriving,  being  drawn  almost  totally 
from  Roman  Catholic  countries,  insure  the  stability  of  the 
predominating  faith  in  the  republic.  This,  however,  is 
not  a  state  supported  religion,  as  the  constitution  adopted 
after  the  revolution  of  1889  brought  about  the  separation 
of  church  and  state.  The  constitution  forbids  the  estab- 
lishing or  subsidising  of  any  sect  of  religious  worship,  but 
freedom  of  religious  observance  of  whatever  kind  is  guaran- 
teed. Formerly  the  church  had  exercised  a  preponderating 
influence  in  matters  concerning  education  and  the  social 
life  of  the  people,  and  until  its  domination  was  broken  real 
reforms  in  these  matters  were  impossible.  The  immoral 
character  of  the  churchmen,  which  was  long  the  subject  of 
serious  indictments  against  its  regimen,  contributed  to 
the  fall  of  the  state  church.  Disestablishment  brought 
about  civil  marriage,  civil  registry  of  births  and  deaths, 
and  the  secularisation  of  cemeteries  ;  and  the  abolition 
of  various  privileges  and  abuses.  The  church  retains  its 
influence  strongly  through  the  confessional  and  other  rites, 
whose  observance  is  firmly  established  in  the  character 
of  the  devout  of  the  Brazilian  people.  It  maintains  eleven 
seminaries  for  the  education  of  priests  and  a  large  number 
of  private  schools,  especially  for  girls  of  the  better  class, 
whose  families  patronise  them  largely.  There  are  also  a 
number  of  Protestant  mission  schools.  The  influence  of 
the  church  is  further  maintained  by  reason  of  the  beneficent 
work  of  its  lay  orders,  and  through  hospitals  and  asylums 


THE  UNITED  STATES   OF  BRAZIL  73 

controlled  thereby  in  every  part  of  the  republic.  In  almost 
every  town  of  importance  Misericordia  hospitals  are  found, 
and  institutions  for  orphan  girls  ;  and  nowhere  have  charities 
received  more  generous  support  than  in  Brazil.  A  small 
number  of  congregations  scattered  through  the  country 
constitute  the  Protestant  element  ;  including  the  German 
and  other  European  colonists.  The  Brazilians,  like  all 
Latin  America  people,  are  strongly  addicted  to  the  outward 
pomp  of  religion,  especially  the  women,  who  are  the 
staunchest  supporters  of  ecclesiasticism.  Among  the  male 
element  the  inevitable  tendency  towards  materialism  asserts 
itself  growingly. 

Brazil,  although  a  country  of  vast  extent  territorially, 
has  its  wealth  and  population  very  much  concentrated  in 
the  states  nearer  the  coast.  In  this  respect  the  republic 
differs  much  from  some  of  the  Spanish  American  countries, 
especially  from  Mexico,  the  next  largest  in  point  of  popula- 
tion, which  is  studded  with  capital  cities  more  or  less  dis- 
tributed over  its  surface.  This  concentration  of  life  near  the 
seaboard  follows  inevitably  upon  the  natural  formation  of 
Brazil,  and  the  character  of  its  people.  A  great  democratic 
movement  to  the  west,  such  as  was  so  marked  a  feature  of 
the  expansion  of  the  United  States,  never  came  to  being  in 
Brazil.  The  physical  configuration  of  the  country  is  such 
that  it  cannot  be  regarded  as  a  unit,  but  as  a  territory  of 
varied  sections,  and  this  quality  is  to  a  certain  extent 
reflected  in  its  governance.  Under  the  Brazilian  constitu- 
tion considerable  freedom  of  governance  is  allowed  to  the 
individual  states,  especially  regarding  the  collection  of 
export  dues.  Legislation  necessary  for  one  part  of  the 
country  is  not  suitable  for  another,  whose  conditions  may 
vary  so  widely.  The  means  necessary  for  the  development 
and  progress  of  enormous  uninhabited  tropical  regions  are 
naturally  not  always  compatible  with  the  interests  of  the 
temperate  and  thickly-settled  southern  states.  These  con- 
ditions offer  serious  problems  for  the  efficient  government 
of  the  republic.  Too  great  a  relaxation  of  the  federal 
authority  leads  to  the  engendering  of  autonomous  ideas  in 
the  distant  states,  weakening  to  the  integrity  of  the  nation ; 


74  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 

whilst  on  the  other  hand  if  mandates  from  a  distant  capital 
are  too  rigidly  interpreted  misunderstandings  are  created. 
The  miscellaneous  character  of  the  population  offers  its 
own  serious  problems.  Millions  of  Indians  and  negroes  act 
often  as  a  retrograde  force,  clashing  with  or  obstructing  the 
energy  of  the  white  people.  This  extensive  and  inferior 
element  is  not  likely  to  make  much  headway  in  self-govern- 
ment until  the  classes  who  control  the  political  affairs  of 
the  country  have  truly  espoused  democratic  principles, 
in  action  as  well  as  in  oratory.  Brazil  has  been  controlled 
by  militarism  since  the  fall  of  the  monarchy,  and  the  element 
is  a  menace  to  domestic  affairs  and  to  international  relations. 
The  serious  disturbances  which  have  taken  place  of  very 
recent  time,  when  the  army  has  striven  to  assassinate  presi- 
dent and  ministers  and  the  navy  has  turned  its  guns  on  to 
its  own  capital,  shew  how  slow  is  the  growth  of  a  true  sense 
of  order.  Brazil  is  in  reality  a  conservative  and  intellectual 
country,  with  valuable  social  elements.  It  is  dowered 
with  an  exceedingly  liberal  share  of  natural  wealth,  but 
except  as  to  certain  special  products  it  is  stagnant,  and  the 
soil  has  yielded  up  but  a  small  portion  of  its  powers. 

The  Portuguese  progenitors  of  Brazil  inaugurated  the 
unsound  practice  of  devoting  their  efforts  to  the  exploitation 
only  of  those  few  staple  products  which  yielded  easy  and 
quick  returns.  A  country  which  relies  so  considerably 
upon  the  cultivation  of  one  or  two  products  cannot  expect 
to  develop  on  sound  permanent  lines  or  to  attract  a  large 
proportion  of  immigrants  and  alien  labour.  The  system 
of  monoculture  may  benefit  a  few  landholders  and  capitalists, 
but  it  will  never  insure  a  race  of  hardy  independent  country 
folk,  without  whose  presence  and  steadying  weight  pros- 
perity becomes  a  mere  mass  of  statistics  of  imports  and 
exports.  The  wealth  of  Brazil  depends  upon  coffee,  rubber, 
and  cocoa  exports  principally,  and  a  fall  in  prices  tends  to 
precipitate  a  crisis  in  national  affairs.  This  has  been 
markedly  shewn  in  the  coffee  industry  in  the  past,  but  has 
been  remedied  to  a  large  extent  by  the  policy  known  as  the 
'•  valorisation  "  of  coffee. 

The  autonomy  exercised  by  the  Brazilian  states  in  their 


THE  UNITED   STATES  OF  BRAZIL  75 

financial  affairs  is  a  condition  which  has  considerable  bearing 
upon  matters  of  foreign  investment  in  those  states.  The 
obligations  consequent  upon  the  raising  of  money  by  these 
local  powers  are  not  guaranteed  by  the  federal  government, 
unless  specifically  so  stated,  and  the  Brazilian  nation  as  a 
whole  is  not  responsible  for  the  integrity  of  such  state  opera- 
tions. This  local  power  has  been  abused  in  some  cases,  and 
the  leading  statesmen  of  the  republic  have  been  impressed 
with  the  conviction  that  funds  have  been  raised  by  local 
authorities  at  times  in  a  manner  such  as  must  impose  a 
serious  strain  on  their  resources,  and  which  might  create  a 
position  injurious  to  the  credit  and  even  the  integrity  of  the 
republic  as  a  whole.  At  the  close  of  1912  a  Bill  was  brought 
into  the  Brazilian  parliament  whose  object  was  to  give  the 
central  government  powers  of  vetoing  loans  contracted 
abroad  without  its  consent  by  individual  states.  A  com- 
mittee of  the  Senate,  whilst  it  endorsed  the  necessity  for 
greater  control,  considered  that  the  measure  would  be  an  in- 
fringement of  autonomous  rights,  and  recommended  that 
the  federal  government  should  not  assume  responsibilities 
for  loans  contracted  by  states  or  municipalities  either  in  or 
outside  Brazil,  which  had  not  the  authorisation  of  Congress  ; 
that  such  loans  should  not  be  admitted  for  quotation  on  the 
courses  of  the  country  ;  and  that  in  the  event  of  creditors 
putting  pressure  on  such  states  or  municipalities  with  the 
purpose  or  pretext  of  recovering  debts  the  federal  govern- 
ment should  take  steps  to  secure  the  integrity  of  the  territory 
concerned  and  to  maintain  the  federal  republic.  The  pro- 
posals were,  however,  rejected  by  the  Senate  and  the  power 
of  the  states  remained  unaltered.  European  investors 
must  protect  themselves  by  recollecting  that  local  loans 
and  emissions  are  not  under  the  pledge  of  the  republic 
unless  so  specially  declared,  and  authorised  by  Congress, 
and  such  emissions  should  be  carefully  scrutinised  by  intend- 
ing investors  when  they  are  offered,  and  close  enquiry  rhade 
into  their  intrinsic  merits  and  the  financial  agencies  dealing 
with  them. 

Brazil  is  a  land  of  many  handsome  cities.     Rio  de  Janeiro, 
the  capital,  as  approached  by  sea,  presents  an  attractive 


76  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 

picture,  with  which  few  seaports  in  the  world  can  compare, 
and  which  has  no  rival  in  the  American  continents.  The 
sunlit,  brilliant  sea,  studded  with  emerald  isles,  is  bounded 
by  palm-fringed  shores  backed  with  mountains  of  striking 
form  and  colour,  clothed  with  vegetation  to  the  summit  in 
some  cases,  naked  in  others.  The  entrance  to  the  harbour 
is  through  a  channel  a  mile  in  width,  so  much  resembling 
a  river  mouth  that  the  early  navigators  termed  it  such,  or 
Rio  de  Janeiro.  The  harbour  itself  is  one  of  the  finest  in 
the  world  :  a  vast  oval  basin  stretching  inland  for  twenty - 
five  miles.  Vessels  of  the  largest  draught  enter,  and  the 
anchorage  in  deep  water  is  extensive  enough  to  accommodate 
all  the  navies  of  the  world.  Of  recent  years  considerable  sums 
have  been  spent  upon  sanitation,  harbour  improvements, 
and  port  works  at  Rio  de  Janeiro.  Until  very  recent  times 
Rio  suffered  from  an  extremely  evil  reputation  as  a  fever  port, 
and  little  more  than  a  decade  ago  the  traveller  practically 
risked  his  life  in  passing  a  single  summer  night  in  the  city — 
conditions  such  as  obtained  also  at  Panama  or  Vera  Cruz. 
But  a  marked  change  has  been  effected  by  improved 
sanitation  and  town  planning,  shewing  again  that  it  is  to 
the  negligence  of  its  human  occupants  rather  than  to  natural 
conditions  that  tropical  seaports  have  acquired  their  ill-fame. 
The  appearance  of  yellow  fever  was  first  recorded  in  1849, 
and  epidemics  were  for  many  years  regularly  experienced 
with  terrible  mortality.  Small-pox,  bubonic  plague,  and 
malarial  fevers  have  also  been  serious  scourges  of  the  port 
periodically,  but  improvement  in  the  habits  of  the  people 
are  tending  towards  the  elimination  of  these  diseases,  although 
much  remains  to  be  done. 

The  city  of  Rio,  formerly  consisting  in  the  main  of  narrow 
streets,  with  public  and  domestic  buildings  severely  plain 
in  appearance,  and  of  solid  stone  construction,  has  been 
greatly  modified  since  the  close  of  the  last  century.  Increas- 
ing wealth  and  population  brought  a  riot  of  ornamentation 
in  building,  fancifully  designed  edifices  in  stucco,  largely  of 
Italian  character,  taking  the  place  of  the  earlier  buildings 
of  colonial  type.  A  great  deal  of  money  has  been  spent  in 
laying  out  public  squares,  parks,  and  avenues,  and  in  highly 


THE  UNITED   STATES  OF  BRAZIL  77 

ornate  theatres  and  glittering  pavilions.  Early  colonial 
sombreness  has  given  place  to  modern  magnificence,  and 
this  wealth  of  structure  seems  to  manifest  itself  to  some 
extent  as  a  reaction  from  earlier  times,  as  of  satisfaction 
that  the  white  man  may  now  live  in  health  where  formerly 
he  died  of  the  most  appalling  diseases.  The  population 
of  the  city  has  grown  rapidly,  and  numbers  nearly  a  million 
inhabitants.  On  the  Avenida,  one  of  the  principal  streets, 
so  greatly  has  the  number  of  motor  cars  increased  in  the 
city,  where  seven  years  ago  there  was  none,  that  the  traffic 
in  these  vehicles  is  at  times  congested. 

Rio  de  Janeiro  is  the  outlet  for  a  large  part  of  the  most 
productive  and  most  thickly  inhabited  regions  of  Brazil, 
embracing  the  states  of  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Minas  Geraes,  and 
part  of  Sao  Paulo,  with  their  exports  of  coffee,  sugar, 
tobacco,  and  diamonds.  The  sugar  industry  formed  the 
earliest  basis  of  Brazilian  wealth.  Sugar  was  the  first 
agricultural  product  required  by  Europe  from  the  New  World, 
and  to  this  product  Rio  de  Janeiro  owed  its  first  civilisation, 
and  upon  its  proceeds  was  established  the  old  colonial 
metropohs  of  Rio  de  Janeiro,  which  to-day,  whilst  retaining 
much  of  its  former  picturesque  aspect,  has  developed  into 
one  of  the  most  modern  centres  of  Latin  American  progress. 
The  sugar  and  coffee  of  Brazil,  if  they  be  more  prosaic  pro- 
ducts than  the  gold  and  silver  of  Peru  and  Mexico,  around 
whose  mines  the  earliest  colonists  clustered,  have  been  agents 
for  building  up  wealth  which  is  more  valuable  and  enduring 
than  the  mineral  treasures  of  those  lands.  Brazil  and 
Argentina  have  become  great  centres  of  food  supply,  and 
of  prime  value  to  the  world  in  this  respect  ;  although  the 
export  of  sugar  from  Brazil  has  decreased  greatly  since  the 
end  of  last  century. 

The  Brazilian  capital  shares  the  high  cost  of  living  common 
to  all  Latin  American  capitals.  High  rents,  high  cost  of 
food,  clothes,  and  other  matters  of  everyday  life  are  at  once 
apparent  to  the  foreigner  from  Europe.  Two  causes  have 
l)een  assigned  to  the  condition  :  the  high  protectional  fiscal 
system,  and  the  scarcity  of  capital ;  and  both  these  serve  to 
shew  how  artificial  and  forced  certain  economic  conditions  of 


78  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH  AMERICA 

life  are  in  Latin  America,  notwithstanding  the  untouched 
resource  of  food  and  material  which  exists,  and  where  it 
might  have  been  supposed  that  labour  and  the  soil  would 
have  produced  plenty  without  the  necessary  intervention  of 
capital  or  artificial  obstructions  of  a  fiscal  nature.  The 
ordinary  rate  of  interest  on  borrowed  capital,  on  undoubted 
security,  is  rarely  lower  than  lo  per  cent.,  and  the  charge 
on  first  mortgage  12  per  cent.  Rents  of  houses  and  shops 
are  high,  often  due  to  the  fact  that  houses  have  been  built 
with  money  borrowed  at  high  interest.  The  shopkeeper 
adjusts  his  prices  accordingly,  and  with  the  heavy  import 
duty  as  concerns  foreign  foods,  the  result  is  in  extortionate 
prices. 

Among  the  cities  next  in  importance  to  Rio  de  Janeiro 
are  Sao  Paulo,  Manaos,  Bahia,  Para,  and  Recife  or  Pernam- 
buco.  Bahia  or  Salvador,  lying  800  miles  to  the  north  of 
Rio,  is  the  oldest  town  in  the  republic,  with  a  population 
estimated  at  nearly  a  quarter  of  a  million.  It  possesses  a 
sheltered  natural  harbour,  within  which  expensive  port  works 
have  been  carried  out.  Sugar  refineries  and  cotton  spinning 
works  are  among  the  most  important  industrial  establish- 
ments. Foreign  commerce  is  well  represented,  the  largest 
share  of  the  export  trade  being  in  the  hands  of  Germans. 
Recife  or  Pernambuco,  farther  to  the  north,  and  Para 
and  Manaos,  the  first  eighty-six  miles  from  the  mouth  of 
the  Amazon  and  the  second  lying  1,000  miles  up  the  river, 
are  the  principal  towns  of  importance  in  the  northern  part 
of  Brazil.  Para  was  founded  in  1616,  and  is  the  leading 
city  of  this  region,  surpassing  Pernambuco  and  Bahia,  and 
must  be  regarded  as  a  progressive  and  enterprising  place 
with  nearly  200,000  inhabitants.  In  matters  of  municipal 
improvement,  public  education,  lighting,  sanitation,  tram- 
way service,  and  port  improvements.  Para  is  acquiring  a 
high  place  in  the  republic,  secondary  only  to  Rio  de  Janeiro 
and  Sao  Paulo.  Manaos  is  the  capital  of  the  great  state 
of  Amazonas,  and  is  reached  in  three  days  by  steamer  up 
the  river  from  Para,  a  British  line  connecting  Manaos  directly 
with  Europe.  The  city  is  situated  near  the  confluence  of  the 
river  Negro,  and  is  the  centre  for  a  vast  tropical  region  of 


THE  UNITED   STATES  OF   BRAZIL  79 

the  Amazon  basin,  including  parts  of  Peru,  Bolivia,  Colombia, 
and  Venezuela,  whose  forest  products  of  rubber,  cocoa, 
nuts,  oils,  tobacco,  and  many  other  matters  are  brought 
down  by  a  flotilla  of  river  craft  of  all  descriptions.  The 
climate  of  Manaos  is  hot,  the  latitude  being  but  3°  south  of 
the  equator,  but  an  eastern  breeze  tends  to  cool  the  tropic 
temperature.  The  town  of  Bello  Horizonte  deserves  special 
mention.  It  is  situated  in  the  state  of  Minas  Geraes, 
and  was  founded  by  presidential  decree  less  than  twenty 
years  ago.  The  town  is  laid  out  upon  a  plan  which  was 
first  drawn  up  on  paper,  and  then  transferred  to  what  was 
a  desert  site,  where  palm-trees  were  the  only  sign  of  life  ; 
far  from  the  malaria  of  the  forests,  and  set  upon  a  high, 
empty  plain  whence  the  bello  horizonte,  or  beautiful  horizon, 
extends  all  around,  unfolding  under  the  transparent  atmo- 
sphere and  bathed  in  the  healthy  air  of  an  exceptionally 
fine  situation. 

Of  all  the  numerous  cities  and  towns  of  Brazil  it  is  impos- 
sible to  enter  into  detail  here.  Many  of  them  bear  upon 
them  the  stamp  of  colonial  times  ;  some  are  handsome,  others 
are  squalid ;  some  healthy,  others  fever-stricken.  There  is 
a  tendency  to  improvement  in  most  of  these  municipalities, 
which  is  largely  aided  by  foreign  capital ;  and  tramwaj's, 
electric  lights,  sewerage  systems,  and  water-supplies  are 
multiplying  under  the  stimulus  of  government  bonds,  or 
the  promise  of  dividends. 

The  railways  of  Brazil,  for  a  country  of  so  large  an  area, 
cannot  be  considered  as  more  than  the  beginning  of  a  system 
which  must  eventually  serve  the  whole  of  the  massive  part 
of  the  continent  between  the  tropic  of  Capricorn  and  the 
Amazon.  The  aggregate  length  of  the  railways  at  the  end 
of  1921  was  17,000  miles,  and  about  one-fifth  of  this  mileage 
is  administered  by  the  state.  The  building  of  railways  in 
Brazil  has  been  hampered  by  two  difficult  topographical 
and  economic  conditions  :  the  chain  of  plateau-escarpments 
or  mountains  which  follow  the  coast  in  this  part  of  South 
America,  and  the  widely  separated  centres  of  population, 
which  exist  in  detached  sections  along  the  coast  with  extense, 
sparsely  settled  areas  between  them.     Rio  de  Janeiro  and 


8o  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 

Santos  are  the  only  cities  or  ports  which  are  backed  by  a 
rich,  well-populated  country,  and  from  these  centres  a 
network  of  railway  lines  extends,  reaching  back  into  the 
interior,  with  long  lines  forming  portions  of  possible  or  future 
transcontinental  systems.  Many  of  the  seaports  on  the 
long  coast  line  north  of  Rio  de  Janeiro  are  small  and  difficult 
of  access  from  the  sea,  but  in  most  cases  are  united  by  the 
railway  sj^stem. 

The  railways  of  Brazil  may  be  divided  geographically 
into  three  principal  groups  :  the  northern,  central,  and 
southern,  the  central  being  the  most  important.  These 
groups  are,  or  in  the  near  future  will  be  linked  into  one 
system.  The  northern  group  will  extend,  when  connections 
are  made,  from  San  Luis  on  the  northern  coast  of  Brazil, 
capital  of  the  state  of  Maranhao,  to  Bahia..  with  branch 
lines  at  nine  different  points  to  the  seaports  of  San  Luis, 
Camocin,  Fortaleza,  Natal,  Cabedello,  Pernambuco,  Maceio, 
Aracaju,  and  San  Salvador,  all  lying  upon  the  stretch  of 
coast  which,  more  than  1,200  miles  long,  forms  the  eastern- 
most projecting  angle  of  South  America.  Nearly  all  these 
ports  lack  wharf  or  quay  accommodation  for  vessels  ;  but 
at  Bahia  and  Pernambuco  elaborate  harbour  works  are 
under  construction.  The  Trunk  system  of  the  northern 
railway  group  is  that  of  the  Great  Western  of  Brazil  Railway 
Company,  from  Natal  to  Maceio,  with  branch  lines  inland, 
the  longest  of  which  extends  towards  the  Fortaleza  line. 
From  Bahia  railway  work  is  also  being  carried  out,  which 
will  provide  increased  means  of  communication  within 
the  state  of  Pernambuco. 

The  central  group  of  railways  connected  with  the  northern 
group  by  the  coast  line,  includes  the  important  systems 
known  as  the  "  Central  of  Brazil,"  the  "  Leopoldina,"  the 
"  Paulista,"  the  "  Mogyana,"  the  "  Sorocabana,"  and  the 
"  Sao  Paulo  "  ;  serving  the  states  of  Espirito  Santo,  Minas 
Geraes,  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Sao  Paulo  and  Parana,  with  exten- 
sions into  Goyaz,  Matto  Grosso,  and  Santa  Catharina.  The 
seaports  served  and  linked  together  by  this  group  are 
Victoria,  Sao  Joac  da  Barra,  Macahe,  Rio  de  Janeiro, 
Santos,  and  Paranagua.     The  capital  and  seaport  of  Rio 


THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  BRAZIL  8i 

de  Janeiro  is  the  centre  of  this  group  of  important  railways, 
and  its  quays  are  served  directly  by  the  Central  of  Brazil 
and  the  Leopoldina  systems.  The  branches  of  the  Leopoldina 
railway  run  to  the  north-east  and  form  part  of  the  north-to- 
south  network.  The  Central  reaches  out  north-westwardly 
into  the  interior,  and  southwardly  follows  the  coast  to  Sao 
Paulo,  the  famous  coffee-producing  centre ;  embodying 
some  1,300  miles  of  railway.  This  important  line  is  among 
those  controlled  by  the  government,  and  is  administered 
by  the  Department  of  Public  Works  ;  and  whilst  its  working 
regimen  is  comparable  with  that  of  other  lines,  the  financial 
results  are  unfavourable.  The  railway  unfortunately  loses  in 
character  as  being  the  subject  of  political  machinations.  The 
Central  line  controls  a  large  suburban  traffic  The  journey 
of  slightly  under  210  miles  from  Rio  de  Janeiro  to  Sao 
Paulo  takes  twelve  hours,  which  compares  well  with  the 
other  Brazilian  lines.  In  the  construction  of  this  railway 
serious  obstacles  were  overcome,  due  to  the  topography 
of  the  region,  which  necessitated  traversing  the  coast  range 
and  gave  rise  to  heavy  gradients  and  switch-backs  ;  the 
elevation  surmounted  being  nearly  4,500  feet  above  sea 
level.  The  scenic  value  of  the  line  is  very  marked,  the  route 
being  an  extremely  picturesque  one.  The  harbour  of 
Santos,  the  port  for  the  state  and  city  of  Sao  Paulo,  is  only 
somewhat  less  in  importance  than  that  of  Rio  de  Janeiro 
in  point  of  shipping  and  the  ingress  and  egress  of  mercantile 
tonnage  ;  and  the  improvements  effected  in  the  docks  and 
sanitation  of  recent  years  have  remedied  the  inadequate 
conditions  of  loading  and  wharfage  which  formerly  existed. 
The  serious  mortality  of  but  a  few  years  ago  has  been 
eliminated  as  a  result  of  these  improvements  :  and  from  a 
pestilence-ridden  relic  of  colonial  times,  Santos  has  become 
a  well-laid-out  and  comparatively  healthy  city,  mainly 
as  a  result  of  the  work  of  the  Santos  Dock  Company.  The 
Sao  Paulo  railway  is  a  British-managed  line,  prosperous 
and  important,  forming  the  outlet  to  the  rich  state  of  that 
name.  From  this  railway  system,  a  line  reaches  out  to 
Corumba  in  the  state  of  Matto  Grosso,  on  the  border  of 
Bolivia,  and  more  than  800  miles  from  the  port  of  Santos, 

F 


82  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 

and  will  tend  to  bring  under  development  an  enormous 
area  of  at  present  desolate  territory.  Access  commercially 
between  these  two  points  has  been  over  a  route  3,000  miles 
long,  by  means  of  the  River  Plate  and  the  Parana  and 
Paraguay  rivers.  The  huge  state  of  Matto  Grosso  has 
suffered  from  lack  of  railway  outlet  for  its  products,  as  has 
also  the  portion  of  Bolivia  which  will  be  served  by  the  line. 
The  region  traversed  includes  large  areas  of  Para  rubber- 
forests,  as  well  as  the  temperate  highlands  of  Matto  Grosso. 
The  line  is  designed  ultimately  to  connect  with  the  railway 
systems  of  Bolivia  and  Peru,  thus  forming  a  transcontinental 
route  to  the  Pacific  coast  ;  more  than  1,100  miles  north  of 
the  Trans-Andean  line  from  Buenos  Ayres  to  Valparaiso. 
A  further  important  line  of  the  Central  group  is  that  to 
Curitaba,  the  capital  of  the  state  of  Parana  ;  and  this  and 
the  Sorocabana  railway  are  controlled  by  a  Canadian 
company,  which  also  finances  the  electric  light  and  power 
systems  of  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Sao  Paulo  and  Bahia.  To  the 
south  of  Santos  is  the  port  of  San  Francisco,  which,  although 
at  present  a  mere  village,  possesses  one  of  the  finest  harbours 
on  the  coast,  and  is  the  terminus  of  a  new  line  which  reaches 
Asuncion,  the  capital  of  Paraguay;  so  giving  that  republic 
a  direct  outlet  to  the  coast.  This  railway  is  a  work  of 
extreme  importance  to  that  part  of  South  America,  as 
the  republic  of  Paraguay  provides  a  field  for  immigration 
and  commercial  development  which  has  remained  obscure 
due  to  its  remote  situation. 

The  third  group  of  railways  is  that  existing  principally  in 
the  state  of  Rio  Grande  do  Sul,  and  the  connecting  link  with 
the  Central  group  through  the  state  of  Santa  Catharina. 
South  of  this  network  is  the  railway  system  of  the  republic 
of  Uruguay  :  the  joining  of  this  with  the  Brazilian  system 
and  with  that  of  Argentina  will  complete  the  great  network 
which  extends  to  Bolivia  and  Chile.  The  connection  of 
the  Southern  Brazilian  system  with  the  Central  Uruguay 
Northern  Extension,  thus  rendering  possible  through  traffic 
between  Rio  de  Janeiro  and  Montevideo,  was  one  of  the 
greatest  evidences  of  railway  activity  in  South  America  at  the 
present  time. 


THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  BRAZIL  83 

The  Brazilian  railways,  as  regards  their  administration 
and  maintenance,  are  grouped  under  several  headings : 
government  lines,  administered  by  the  state  or  leased  to 
private  parties  ;  private  lines  with  national  interest  guaran- 
tees, and  without  such  guarantees  ;  and  private  and  state 
lines  operated  under  state  concessions  with  and  without 
interest  guarantees.  The  tendency  of  the  government  policy 
is  to  lease  its  lines.  The  railways  are  of  varying  gauges. 
The  Central  of  Brazil,  from  Rio  de  Janeiro  to  Sao  Paulo 
and  northward  into  Minas  Geraes,  which  forms  the  great 
government  trunk  line,  is  of  sixty-three  inches  gauge,  and 
was  built  during  the  years  1858  to  1864.  The  Sao  Paulo  and 
Pauhsta,  principal  trunk  lines,  are  also  broad  gauge,  with 
narrow  gauge-feeders  and  extensions.  Some  of  the  smaller 
lines  in  north  and  south  Brazil  were  built  from  political 
considerations,  and  guarantees  of  interest  upon  their  cost, 
payable  under  the  railway  law  of  1853  to  their  British 
constructing  companies,  heavily  burdened  the  national 
treasury  ;  and  they  were  afterwards  purchased  by  the  state 
and  have  been  leased. 

The  four  principal  railway  companies  in  Brazil  in  which 
British  investors  are  interested,  and  whose  shares  are  quoted 
on  the  London  Stock  Exchange,  are  the  Leopoldina,  the 
Great  Western,  the  Great  Southern,  and  the  Sao  Paulo.  The 
total  mileage  of  these  four  lines  is  approximately  2,800  miles, 
and  there  are  some  2,000  miles  under  construction  or  pro- 
jected by  British  interests.  The  total  capital  is  represented 
by  nearly  £23,000,000  sterling  in  debentures  and  shares. 

There  are  vast  areas  of  land  in  Brazil  still  available,  in 
some  cases  at  almost  nominal  prices:  opportunities  for  the 
foreigner  or  national  which  in  the  future  are  not  likely  to 
.  remain.  Thus,  in  certain  states  land  prices  are  from  600  reis 
to  10  or  20  milreis  per  hectare  (=2|-  acres).  In  1921,  with 
the  milreis  worth  tenpence  (par  value  27d.),  the  possibility 
of  obtaining  landed  estates  capable  of  producing  many 
commodities  of  value,  even  if  in  at  present  remote  districts, 
was  certainly  alluring,  and  the  prospect  remains  attractive. 

Although  the  number  of  tide-water  river  channels  and 
inlets  on  the  coast  of  Brazil  is  large,  those  which  are  really 


84  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH  AMERICA 

serviceable  as  harbours  do  not  number  more  than  about 
twelve  ;  reefs,  sand-bars,  and  shoals  rendering  many  of  the 
others  practically  useless.  Heavy  expenditure  has  been 
necessary  in  creating  good  port  facilities  at  Rio  de  Janeiro, 
Santos,  and  Manaos,  the  cost  being  met  by  an  additional 
tax  on  merchandise.  Among  the  natural  l^arbours  is 
that  of  Maceio.  For  a  country  whose  populated  centres 
are  separated  by  such  vast  distances  of  coast  or  river, 
Brazil  is  seriously  deficient  in  steamship  lines.  The  coasting 
trade  is  confined  by  law  to  national  vessels,  or  foreign  vessels 
under  the  Brazilian  flag,  with  a  certain  proportion  of  native 
crew ;  the  object  being  to  create  a  national  merchant 
marine.  But  the  Brazilians  are  not  a  maritime  people, 
which  is  a  serious  obstacle  to  the  purpose.  On  the  Brazilian 
rivers  subsidised  lines  of  steamers  run,  an  English  corpora- 
tion serving  the  Amazon  and  its  main  tributaries  ;  and  the 
Lloyd  Brazilian  line  sends  steamers  regularly  from  Rio 
northwards  to  Para  and  Manaos,  and  southwardly  to  Monte- 
video. Heavily  subsidised  lines  of  steamers  ascend  the 
Parana  and  Paraguay  rivers  to  Corumba  and  Cuyaba,  in  the 
state  of  Matto  Grosso,  above  Asuncion,  and  there  are  also 
subsidised  steamers  on  the  San  Francisco  river,  the  great 
northward-flowing  stream  which  debouches  near  the  north- 
east angle  of  the  South  American  continent  at  Sergipe.  This 
waterway  is  interrupted  by  the  Paulo  Affonso  falls,  but  is 
navigated  above,  for  850  miles  to  Piraporo. 

The  most  important  element  in.  Brazil  is  the  production 
of  coffee.  Coffee  in  Brazil  is  an  instance  of  an  enormous 
industry  carried  on  with  a  single  product,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
cattle  or  the  wheat  of  Argentina.  The  coffee-shrub  was  first 
introduced  into  South  America  by  the  Dutch,  who  sent  it  in 
1718  from  Amsterdam  to  Surinam,  whence  it  spread  through 
the  American  tropics,  but  it  was  of  comparatively  recent 
times  that  its  cultivation  acquired  such  vast  importance 
in  Brazil.  Nearly  all  parts  of  Brazil  are  capable  of  producing 
coffee,  but  the  production  has  mainly  been  confined  to  a 
comparatively  small  belt  formed  by  the  four  states  of 
Espirito  Santo,  Minas  Geraes,  Rio  de  Janeiro,  and  Sao  Paulo, 
although  the  other  states  produce  coffee  in  small  degree. 


THE  UNITED   STATES  OF  BRAZIL  85 

Sao  Paulo  is  the  greatest  and  most  famous  centre  of  coffee 
production  in  the  world,  and  as  a  result  the  state  is  the 
wealthiest  and  most  populous  of  any  in  Brazil,  coffee 
forming  the  principal  source  of  its  wealth  :  and  is,  in  effect, 
the  basis  of  a  special  area  of  South  American  civilisation. 
The  surface  of  this  particular  state  contains  102,300  square 
miles  of  land,  and  it  has  a  population  of  nearly  3,800,000 
people,  thus  having  the  greatest  density  to  the  square  mile 
of  any  region  in  the  republic.  Yet  barely  a  quarter  of  it 
is  under  cultivation.  The  state  of  Sao  Paulo  lies  upon 
the  southern  coast  of  Brazil,  and  the  important  network 
of  railways  which  serves  it  has  its  outlet  at  the  port  of 
Santos.  The  state  supplies  more  than  half  the  world's 
output  of  coffee,  the  yield  having  increased  from  103,000 
bags  in  1850  to  more  than  12,250,000  bags  in  1910.  The 
area  planted  with  coffee  of  2,250,000  acres  contains,  it  is 
estimated,  more  than  6,750,000  trees.  Some  of  the  estates 
are  25,000  to  50,000  acres  in  extent,  and  represent  a  large 
investment  of  capital  :  the  drying-plots  for  the  berries  or 
coffee-beans  occupy  thousands  of  square  yards  in  area,  and 
the  product  is  transported  from  the  plantation  by  waterways 
and  light  railways  :  the  largest  estates  are  practically  com- 
plete settlements,  with  their  own  schools  and  other  matters 
of  community  life  ;  and  electric  power  is  largely  utilised 
for  actuating  the  machinery  and  for  lighting.  In  harvesting 
the  coffee  the  entire  families  of  the  plantation  labourer, 
including  men,  women,  and  children,  are  employed, 

Thus  the  rise  and  growth  of  the  coffee-producing  in- 
dustry in  Sao  Paulo  is  of  much  interest,  and  reveals  a  local 
civilisation  practically  founded  upon  the  cultivation  of  an 
exotic  shrub.  The  decomposed  lavas  of  certain  portions  of 
the  state,  which  have  formed  a  deep,  rich  soil,  are  called  by 
the  Paulistas  "  red  earth,"  and  upon  these  limited  areas  of 
diabasic  soils  the  valuable  agricultural  industry  was  earliest 
concentrated.  In  the  year  1885  a  great  coffee-planting 
mania  came  to  being,  and  continued  for  fifteen  years.  For 
thirty  years  previous  coffee-planting  had  made  normal 
progress,  but  the  sudden  expansion  absorbed  the  thoughts 
and  energies  of  all  :   rich  and  poor,  city  people  and  farmers. 


86  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH   AMERICA 

Other  forms  of  agriculture,  such  as  the  cultivation  of  sugar- 
cane, cotton,  and  cereals,  were  neglected,  and  a  systematic 
search  followed  for  the  famous  "  red  earth  "  deposits,  which 
experience  had  shown  was  that  in  which  the  coffee  flourished. 
The  shrub  in  that  region  grows  best  at  an  elevation  of  i,8oo 
to  2,500  feet  above  sea  level,  where  frosts  do  not  occur  ;  and 
certain  well-defined  upland  belts  became  settled  with  coffee- 
growers,  whose  jazendas  or  plantations  appeared  rapidly 
on  every  hand  ;  and  the  forests  receded  before  axe  and  fire 
to  be  replaced  by  the  coffee-shrub.  New  centres  of  popula- 
tion followed,  small  towns  of  a  cosmopolitan  character,  in- 
cluding Orientals,  Arabs,  and  Syrians — those  inveterate 
small  traders  for  whose  petty  buying  and  selling  no  corner 
of  Latin  America  seems  too  remote.  Sao  Paulo  became  the 
home  of  perhaps  the  most  assorted  mixture  of  agriculturists 
of  different  races  that  has  existed  in  any  part  of  the  world. 
The  capital  of  the  state,  the  city  of  Sao  Paulo,  became  an 
important  commerical  centre,  its  prosperity  being  entirely 
founded  upon  the  coffee  industry,  which,  as  described, 
followed  upon  the  discovery  of  this  peculiar  red  volcano  soil 
upon  the  plateau  of  eastern  Brazil.  The  city  and  state  of 
Sao  Paulo  are  closely  united  in  their  efforts  to  sustain  the 
prosperity  of  the  industry,  and  it  may  be  said  that  their 
literature,  economics,  government  and  all  use,  are  bound 
up  with  and  influenced  thereby ;  and  coffee,  its  cultivation, 
production,  sale,  and  shipment  almost  form  the  science  and 
rehgion  of  the  rich  state  of  Sao  Paulo. 

The  proportion  of  foreigners  in  the  population  is  higher 
in  Sao  Paulo  than  in  Rio  de  Janeiro,  and  the  state  absorbs 
a  large  flow  of  immigrants,  of  whom,  numbering  900,000, 
Italians  predominate,  and  among  whom  are  5,000  owners 
of  coffee  plantations  of  an  aggregate  value  of  £4,000,000. 
Since  the  abolition  of  slavery,  the  question  of  labour  on 
the  fazendas  has  been  the  most  vital  one  for  that  state. 
Sao  Paulo,  the  capital  of  the  state,  is  a  handsome  city 
with  upwards  of  350,000  inhabitants,  and  ranks  second 
in  the  republic ;  and  its  public  buildings,  parks,  avenues, 
and  the  handsome  dwellings  of  the  wealthy  coffee-growers 
are  evidences  of  the  prosperity  of  the  industry  ;    and  the 


THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  BRAZIL  87 

educational  system  in  the  schools  of  the  capital  is  the  best 
in  the  country.  For  the  purpose  of  encouraging  colonisation 
in  the  territory  the  state  government  offers  various  induce- 
ments, some  of  an  attractive  nature,  to  European  emigrants, 
but  the  fluctuation  of  labour  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  in 
1912,  103,000  immigrants  entered  the  state  and  40,000 
emigrants  left  it,  through  the  port  of  Santos. 

The  outlet  for  the  coffee  industry  is  the  seaport  of  Santos, 
the  greatest  coffee-exporting  centre  in  the  world.  Santos 
was,  until  very  recently,  as  fever-stricken  and  unsanitary  a 
place  as  Rio,  but  new  systems  of  sanitation  and  drainage, 
and  the  improved  docks  and  embankment  of  the  water- 
front, have  served  to  remedy  the  condition  and  redeem  the 
evil  reputation  of  what  was  one  of  the  deadliest  of  the 
world's  seaports.  The  exports  of  coffee  from  Santos 
represent  nearly  the  whole  of  the  produce  of  the  republic  ; 
the  total  of  the  export  of  coffee  in  1919  reaching  a  value 
of  nearly  ^73,000,000  sterling.  In  the  state  of  Sao 
Paulo  the  largest  coffee  estate  owner  in  the  world  exists  : 
a  German  colonist,  whose  property  embraces  thirty-one 
plantations  with  an  aggregate  area  of  more  than  80,000 
acres,  and  a  yearly  output  of  10,500  tons  of  coffee-berry  per 
annum.  From  wealth  acquired  from  coffee  a  fortune  of 
£5,000,000  was  recently  left  by  a  Brazilian  millionaire,  largely 
in  coffee  plantations  and  shares  in  the  Santos  Docks. 

Injury  has  been  done  to  Brazil  and  other  coffee-producing 
countries  by  reason  of  the  adulteration  of  coffee  in  Europe 
and  the  United  States.  The  Brazilian  government  has  made 
efforts  to  improve  the  brands  sold  in  foreign  markets,  and 
to  augment  the  consumption  of  coffee.  The  adulteration  of 
coffee  in  London  and  in  Germany  is  partly  responsible  for 
the  low  and  almost  stationary  consumption,  the  true  virtue 
of  the  beverage  failing  to  reach  the  people  in  great  measure. 
This  adulteration  has  reached  an  average,  it  is  stated,  of 
40  per  cent.  The  consumption  of  coffee  in  Great  Britain 
is  the  lowest  in  the  world,  being  only  about  i  lb.  per  head 
per  annum,  as  against  12  lbs.  for  the  United  States  and  15 
lbs.  for  Holland. 

The  policy   known    as   the    valorisation   of   coffee    was 


88  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

inaugurated  by  the  state  government  of  Sao  Paulo,  and  was 
brought  about  by  the  threatened  ruin  of  the  planters  due  to 
low  prices  following  on  a  number  of  years  of  extremely  good 
harvests.  Under  it  the  purchase  of  coffee  by  the  state  was 
legalised,  the  object  being  to  prevent  the  crop,  in  times  of 
abundant  harvests,  from  being  put  upon  the  market  until 
demand  should  warrant  it ;  thus  keeping  up  the  price  of 
the  commodity.  This  policy  has  been  greatly  criticised, 
but  its  daring  principle  has  met  with  success.  It  embodied 
a  new  form  of  "  protection,"  by  which  a  government  inter- 
vened in  an  agricultural  industry,  and  bought  at  its  own 
expense  enormous  quantities  of  coffee  to  be  held  in  reserve. 
The  great  loan  of /i5,ooo,ooosteriing  which  was  placed  with 
foreign  bankers  for  the  purpose  has  regularly  received  its 
due  interest  and  amortisation,  and  has  been  reduced,  in 
1912,  to  £4,000,000.  The  accumulated  stock  of  coffee  was 
held  in  Europe  and  the  United  States,  and  gradually  un- 
loaded as  better  prices  prevailed.  A  security  of  7,000,000 
bags  of  coffee  was  handed  over  for  the  loan,  and  surtax 
of  five  francs  per  bag  imposed  to  cover  the  interest.  At  the 
close  of  1912  there  was  some  clash  with  the  United  States 
government,  in  connection  with  the  laws  enacted  at  Wash- 
ington against  Trusts,  which  it  was  held  were  violated  under 
the  valorisation  arrangements,  by  reason  of  stocks  held  in 
that  country.     These  stocks  were  dispersed  as  a  result. 

Following  upon  the  cultivation  of  coffee,  cotton-growing 
and  the  manufacture  of  the  cheaper  kinds  of  textile  fabrics 
foiTn  the  most  important  industries  of  Brazil.  It  is  esti- 
mated that  one-third  of  the  total  industrial  capital  of  the 
country  is  invested  in  the  cotton  mills,  a  sum  amounting  to 
£16,000,000  sterhng,  and  the  industry  is  one  of  the  most 
prosperous  in  the  republic.  The  mills  are  capable  of  con- 
suming all  the  raw  cotton  produced  on  the  plantations,  and 
they  would  do  so  were  it  not  that,  due  to  the  topographical 
configuration  of  the  country,  the  export  of  raw  cotton  from 
certain  districts  is  more  profitable  than  its  carriage  to  the 
mills.  Every  state  possesses  cotton-fields  and  mills,  but  the 
latter  are  principally  concentrated  in  the  states  of  Sao  Paulo 
and  Rio  de  Janeiro,     The  yield  of  cotton  varies  from  1,500 


THE   UNITED   STATES   OF   BRAZIL  89 

to  3,000  kilogrammes  per  hectare,  which  compares 
favourably  with  the  900  to  1,000  kilos  per  hectare  of  the 
United  States,  according  to  Brazihan  figures. 

The  cotton  mills  generally  pay  a  substantial  profit  upon 
their  invested  capital,  the  industry  having  been  fostered 
and  maintained  largely  by  the  aid  of  high  tariff  rates  upon 
imported  cotton  goods.  It  is  estimated  that  there  are  240 
mills,  with  a  total  production  of  500,000,000  metres  of 
textiles.  The  quantity  of  raw  cotton  exported  from  the 
country  and  the  import  of  cotton  fabrics  have  both 
been  steadily  declining  with  the  development  of  the  home 
industry,  which  from  a  disinterested  economic  stand- 
point may  be  regarded  with  satisfaction,  as  tending  to- 
wards the  natural  condition  of  the  supplying  of  its  own 
wants  by  the  community,  rather  than  depending,  either  for 
sale  or  purchase,  upon  foreign  countries.  In  some  cases 
however,  protection  has  been  overdone,  and  the  weaving 
mills  which  use  imported  yarns  have  suffered.  The  various 
states  in  some  instances  have  exercised  their  right  to  assist 
local  mills  by  state  legislation,  in  addition  to  the  national 
tariff.  Notwithstanding  high  tariffs,  and  the  development 
of  the  home  industries  aided  thereby,  Brazil  still  imports 
large  quantities  of  cotton  goods  of  the  superior  kinds,  which 
the  native  mills  cannot  produce.  The  advance  in  manu- 
facture has  been  principally  in  the  plainer  and  coarser  fabrics 
which  form  the  dress  of  the  poorer  classes.  The  fuel  con- 
sumption of  the  mills  is  supplied  by  imported  coal,  which 
costs  at  Sao  Paulo  over  £2  per  ton.  Freights  on  the  cotton 
from  the  northern  states  are  high,  which  is  an  added  expense, 
and  a  duty  for  purposes  of  revenue  also  exists  upon  the  raw 
material.  Cheap  labour,  home-grown  raw  material,  and 
plenty  of  available  capital,  however,  ensure  profits  upon  the 
industry.  The  earnings  upon  capital  are  from  6  to  8,  10, 
and  12  per  cent.,  but  due  to  a  difference  in  the  value  of  the 
milreis  since  some  of  the  most  important  mills  were 
established,  the  shareholders  reap  from  15  to  30  per  cent, 
on  their  original  investments. 

The  purchase  of  textile  machinery,  mainly  from  Great 
Britain,   is  very  considerable.     The  mills  are  often  well- 


go  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH   AMERICA 

designed  and  equipped,  generally  following  a  one-storey 
plan,  land  being  cheap  :  which  is  an  advantage  in  certain 
respects  over  the  Lancashire  system :  and  hydraulic  and 
electric  power  are  largely  used.  The  factory  operatives 
work  for  ten  hours  daily,  but  it  is  estimated  that  twice  as 
many  hands  are  required  in  a  Brazilian  as  in  a  Lancashire 
mill.  The  constant  addition  of  new  mills  may  be  expected 
to  consume  the  whole  of  the  native  product  of  raw  cotton. 
A  great  deal  of  the  cotton  is  grown  by  small  farmers  without 
any  particular  capital,  in  a  haphazard  way,  with  other 
crops,  and  sold  to  the  mills  :  and  this  branch  of  agriculture, 
it  may  be  said,  is  a  "  poor  man's  industry  "  in  part,  which  is 
not  the  case  with  coffee  planting. 

Cotton  is  a  native  product  of  the  New  World.  Cortes  found 
the  Aztecs  and  kindred  tribes  wearing  armour  of  quilted 
cotton,  which,  whilst  it  did  not  resist  bullets,  offered  protec- 
tion from  arrows  and  spears.  In  the  Amazon  valley  the 
early  explorer,  Orellana,  and  others,  found  the  Indians  wear- 
ing cushmas  or  cotton  shirts,  and  small  plantations  of  cotton 
were  observed  around  their  settlements.  In  1770  the  Portu- 
guese government  ordered  the  Viceroy  of  the  Indies  to  take 
steps  to  introduce  improvements  in  spinning  and  weaving 
into  the  flourishing  colony  of  Brazil.  Weavers  arrived,  and 
calico  factories  were  established  and  certain  coarse  kinds  of 
material  were  obliged  to  be  manufactured.  In  1809  all 
kinds  of  cotton  goods  were  permitted  to  be  made,  but  in 
the  next  year  the  imperial  permission  was  withheld  by 
reason  of  a  treaty  between  Portugal  and  Great  Britain.  In 
1846  the  restrictions  were  withdrawn  and  protective  mea- 
sures established,  but  only  nine  factories  came  into  being, 
with,  however,  a  considerable  export.  In  1874,  due  to  the 
American  Civil  War,  78,000  tons  were  exported  from  the 
mills  of  Brazil,  but  later  the  industry  fell  into  decay,  from 
which  at  the  present  time  it  is  recovering.  The  product  of 
cotton  in  1918  was  140,000  tons,  and  the  value  of  the 
export  for  1920  nearly  £5,500,000. 

Large  quantities  of  rice  are  consumed  in  Brazil,  but  the 
imports  have  declined  owing  to  home  cultivation  and  local 
initiative,  wjiich  is  now  ousting  the  foreign  product.    The 


THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  BRAZIL  91 

cultivation  is  increasing  to  such  an  extent  that  Brazil  may 
begin  to  export  rice  instead  of  importing  it. 

The  plantations  of  Brazil  lead  in  supplying  the  world  with 
cocoa,  the  product  of  the  republic  amounting  to  more 
than  50  per  cent,  of  the  world's  output.  The  moist,  warm 
regions  are  admirably  adapted  to  the  cultivation  of  the  cacao 
bean,  of  which  54,000  tons  were  exported  in  1920, 

The  tobacco  grown  is  mainly  consumed  in  the  country 
itself,  and  figures  of  export  give  but  little  clue  to  the  import- 
ance of  its  production.  The  best  qualities  of  the  Bahia 
leaf  are  regarded  as  the  equal  of  the  Cuban  in  flavour,  and 
the  state  enjoys  a  considerable  revenue  therefrom.  Nearly 
all  the  Brazilian  export  of  tobacco  is  taken  by  Hamburg 
and  Bremen.    In  1920  the  export  was  31,500  tons. 

Sugar  was  formerly,  and  might  again  be,  under  better 
labour  conditions,  one  of  the  foremost  of  Brazilian  products. 
During  colonial  times  sugar-cane  was  cultivated  from  Para- 
tizba  in  the  north-east  to  Santos  in  the  south,  and  sugar 
production  was  the  principal  industry  and  the  foundation 
of  Brazil's  wealth  and  civilisation,  and  with  Brazil-wood 
was  the  principal  export  to  Portugal.  Before  the  middle  of 
'last  century  sugar  was  supplanted  in  importance  by  coffee. 
At  present  the  sugar-cane  is  cultivated  in  three  zones,  of 
which  the  northern,  with  the  state  of  Pernambuco  as  its 
centre,  is  the  most  important. 

At  the  present  time  the  best  results  are  obtained  from  the 
Selangor  variety  of  cane,  which  grows  to  6|  feet  in  height, 
with  an  average  diameter  of  i|  inches,  the  average  deration 
from  the  same  stubble  being  three  years.  The  cane  is 
planted  in  July,  August,  and  September,  and  cut  from  Sep- 
tember to  March,  The  soil  in  this  region  is  a  dark,  sandy 
loam  or  clay,  so  rich  in  vegetable  humus  that  little  fertilisa- 
tion has  been  necessary,  and  no  artificial  irrigation  is  re- 
quired. The  cost  of  production  averaged  from  4  to  5  milreis, 
or  5s.  4d.  to  6s.  8d.  per  tone  of  cane,  and  the  cost  of  working 
about  2S.  8d.  The  average  yield  of  sugar  from  the  Pernam- 
buco cane  is  65  tons  per  hectare,  or  2|  acres.  The  plan- 
tations are  generally  supplied  with  light,  narrow-gauge 
railways  and  tramways,  which  transport  the  cane  to  the 


92  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 

mill,  some  of  the  lines  being  from  lo  to  40  miles  in  length, 
with  engines  weighing  from  8  to  20  tons,  and  cars  of  5-ton 
capacity.  The  lines  and  rolling  stock  come  almost  entirely 
from  England  and  Germany,  The  German  cars  are  25  per 
cent,  cheaper  than  the  English,  and  are  much  more  num- 
erous than  the  latter.  The  fields  are  fenced  with  barbed 
wire,  90  per  cent,  of  which  is  of  United  States  origin,  and  all 
the  ploughs  used  in  cultivation  are  from  the  same  source. 
The  factories  are  nearly  all  equipped  with  British  machinery, 
generally  of  a  very  old  type.  In  the  vicinity  of  Pernambuco 
there  are  some  sixty  sugar  mills,  some  of  a  large  capacity, 
sugar  being  made  by  the  same  process  as  that  of  the  United 
States.  In  addition  to  the  larger  mills,  with  their  vacuum- 
pans,  crystallisers,  and  centrifugals,  there  are  many  small, 
open-boiling  plants,  producing  white,  yellow,  and  third- 
class  sugars  with  primitive  appliances.  All  the  sugars  pro- 
duced in  this  region  are  bought  by  local  commission  agents 
and  sent  to  Rio  de  Janeiro  or  to  England  to  be  refined. 
Sugar  is  also  largely  grown  in  many  of  the  other  states. 
The  exports  of  sugar  from  Brazil  in  1910  were  about 
58,000  tons,  and  in  1920  109,000  tons,  of  a  value  of 
£6,147,000. 

A  peculiar  product  of  the  central  part  of  South  America 
is  the  well-known  yerha  mate  or  Paraguayan  tea,  large 
quantities  of  which  are  produced  in  Brazil,  the  exports  for 
the  year  1920  having  reached  nearly  90,000  tons.  This 
product  is  described  in  dealing  with  Paraguay.  The  num- 
erous vegetable  and  forestal  products  of  Brazil  are  of  much 
value  and  interest,  and  some  idea  of  their  importance  will 
be  gathered  from  the  table  of  exports  shown  elsewhere. 

The  staple  article  of  diet  in  Brazil  is  the  mandioca. 
When,  in  1500,  the  Portuguese  first  set  foot  in  Brazil, 
they  found  that  the  aboriginal  Guaranis  and  Tupinambas 
depended  for  their  daily  bread,  not  upon  corn,  whose 
absence  caused  the  discoverers  surprise,  but  upon  a  certain 
root  which  they  cultivated,  and  called  "  mandioca."  One 
of  the  first  Jesuits  learned  from  the  natives  that  its  use  was 
first  taught  them  by  the  god  Zome,  according  to  native 
legends,  during  a  period  of  famine,  and  although  he  naturally 


THE   UNITED   STATES   OF   BRAZIL  93 

disregarded  their  simple  mythology,  he  was  at  a  loss  how 
better  to  explain  their  discovery  of  the  utility  of  the  root, 
which  in  its  wild  state  is  not  only  woody  and  fibrous,  but 
is,  in  addition,  so  poisonous  as  to  cause  death  to  the  animal 
which  may  eat  it.  Nevertheless,  the  Guaranis,  by  careful 
and  prolonged  cultivation,  coaxed  the  fibrous  root  to  swell 
into  tubers,  destroyed  the  poison  by  the  application  of  heat, 
and  using  much  the  same  method  as  obtains  to-day, 
produced  both  the  well-known  tapioca  and  the  little-known 
"  farinha  de  mandioca,"  which  is  to  most  Brazilians  what 
bread  is  to  the  European  or  American.  The  mandioca, 
which  corresponds  to  the  cassava  of  other  countries, 
grows  wild  throughout  Brazil ;  generally  it  is  a  shrub 
some  4  feet  in  height,  which,  when  cultivated,  develops  on 
its  roots  tubers  of  various  shapes  and  sizes.  The  farinha 
is  made  for  home  consumption  by  the  ancient  process  of 
washing,  pulverising,  and  squeezing  the  root  to  express  the 
juice,  and  then  by  grinding  and  roasting.  The  best  quality 
of  farinha  has  the  consistency  of  coarse,  whitish  sawdust 
after  the  process,  and  is  agreeable  and  nutritious,  but  the 
inferior  kind,  which  is  that  forming  the  food  of  the  poorer 
classes,  is  in  the  form  of  brownish  lumps,  much  less  inviting 
and  wholesome.  An  acre  of  land  of  good  farinha,  it  is 
calculated,  yields  the  equivalent  in  food  value  to  six  acres 
of  corn,  with  much  less  labour.  The  export  of  the  tapioca 
might  be  largely  increased. 

The  mining  industries  and  mineral  exports  of  Brazil  are 
very  small  for  a  country  of  so  vast  an  area.  The  gold  pro- 
duction of  the  state  of  Minas  Geraes  and  other  parts  of  the 
republic,  which  in  centuries  past  produced  considerable 
supplies,  has  diminished  greatly.  Abandoned  placer  mines 
are  exceedingly  plentiful  in  certain  districts  of  the  unsettled 
interior.  Diamond  mining  early  acquired  considerable 
importance,  and  diamonds  have  been  exported  from  Brazil 
since  1727.  The  state  of  Minas  was  a  famous  centre  of 
production,  and  it  has  been  estimated  that  stones  to  the 
value  of  £12,000,000  have  been  taken  from  the  diamond 
fields  since  that  period.  The  states  of  Matto  Grosso,  Goyaz, 
and  Bahia,  are  the  principal  centres  of  diamond  mining, 


94  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH  AMERICA 

but  the  industry  has  suffered  since  the  advent  of  mining 
in  South  Africa.  The  black  diamond  of  Brazil  is  largely 
used  for  diamond  drills. 

The  iron  ores  of  Brazil  have  not  received  adequate  atten- 
tion, due  to  difficulties  of  transport  and  lack  of  enterprise 
and  expert  knowledge.  As  early  as  1629  one  or  two  small 
forges  were  constructed  in  the  vicinity  of  the  ore  deposits, 
and  probably  represented  the  first  attempts  at  ironworking 
in  the  whole  of  America.  Of  the  several  known  deposits  of 
importance  one  occurs  near  the  Central  Railway  of  Brazil, 
and  the  claim  has  been  made  that  enormous  quantities  of 
payable  ore  can  be  recovered,  and  estimates  of  thousands 
of  millions  of  tons  as  existing  in  one  portion  of  the  district 
alone  ;  a  large  proportion  of  which  carries  50  per  cent,  of 
iron.  That  the  basis  of  a  great  iron-foundry  industry  exists 
in  the  Brazilian  highlands  is  regarded  as  an  established  fact  : 
but  it  remains  to  be  seen  how  far  the  available  coal  deposits 
of  Brazil  could  be  of  service  in  the  industry. 

Recently  possibilities  of  the  exportation  of  the  iron 
deposits  of  Minas  Geraes  have  been  studied  by  London 
capitalists  with  a  view  of  the  mining  and  exportation  of  the 
ore  ;  as  a  result  of  which  it  has  been  determined  that  ores 
carrying  60  per  cent,  iron  can  be  shipped  in  great  quantities. 
From  the  standpoint  of  national  benefit  the  fabrication  of 
iron  and  steel  in  the  country  itself  would  seem  more  advis- 
able :  and  native  and  foreign  capital  with  skilled  labour 
from  abroad  might  demonstrate  the  possibihties  of  the  field. 
The  home  demand  is  estimated  at  some  250,000  tons  annually 
of  iron  and  steel.  The  increase  in  railway  building  calls  for 
large  quantities  of  rails,  and  other  public  works  require  cast 
and  rolled  iron  and  steel  in  other  forms  in  increasing  amounts. 
Furthermore,  a  successfully  established  steel  plant,  it  might 
be  expected,  could  extend  its  business  to  the  neighbouring 
republics,  as  far  as  facilities  of  transport  permitted.  Other 
deposits  of  iron  exist  in  the  states  of  Rio  de  Janeiro  and 
Espirito  Santo,  which  may  prove  of  commercial  value  in  the 
future.  The  Serra  do  Espinhago,  bounding  the  valley  of 
the  San  Francisco  river  on  the  east,  contains  excellent  de- 
posits of  iron  ore,  with  some  gold  in  conjunction  with  it. 


THE   UNITED   STATES   OF   BRAZIL  95 

and  many  years  ago  governmental  efforts  were  made,  by 
the  introduction  of  craftsmen,  and  the  establishing  of  a 
town  and  forges,  to  create  a  home  industry  of  iron  produc- 
tion.    The  same  district  is  famous  for  its  gold  ores. 

Coal  of  commercial  value  exists  in  Rio  Grande  do  Sul  and 
Santa  Catherina,  but  the  development  of  the  deposits  has 
been  slow.  It  is  not  first  class  coal,  but  nevertheless  can 
be  rendered  into  a  valuable  marketable  commodity. 

A  further  and  peculiar  mineral  resource  of  Brazil  is  the 
monazite  sand  found  on  the  coast,  which  of  late  years  has 
acquired  considerable  commercial  value. 

In  connection  with  the  mineral  deposits  and  their  exploi- 
tation in  general,  one  of  the  principal  requirements  of  Brazil 
is  a  geological  survey.  Copper,  lead,  nickel,  manganese, 
platinum,  mercury,  zinc,  wolfram,  bismuth,  and  tin  are  also 
found  and  in  some  cases  worked.  Copper  smelting  furnaces 
exist,  and  copper  matte  is  exported.  Marble  and  lime  are 
abundant,  and  there  are  many  varieties  of  mineral  waters, 
some  of  which  are  bottled  for  consumption. 

The  two  best-known  gold  mines  of  Brazil  are  the  St. 
John  del  Rey  and  the  Ouro  Preto,  both  under  British  control. 
The  St.  John  del  Rey  mine  at  Morro  Velho  yielded,  in  the 
year  1912, 196,300  tons  of  ore,  giving  a  value  of  gold  and  silver 
of  £443,000  ;  the  largest  amount  obtained  since  the  enter- 
prise was  started,  in  1834.  Much  of  the  mineral  is  being 
extracted  from  a  depth  of  nearly  5,000  feet  ;  the  mine  being 
the  deepest  in  the  world.  The  yield  of  the  ore  was  nearly 
46s.  per  ton,  giving  a  profit  of  nearly  £141,000  on  the  year's 
operations,  an  increase  over  the  pre\ious  years.  For  the 
year  1920,  146,800  tons  were  crushed,  yielding  £550,000, 
the  highest  ever  obtained:  costs  48s.  per  ton:  profit, 
£168,000,  a  record;  dividend  ten  per  cent. — for  the  tenth 
consecutive  year.  The  mine  is  now  artificially  cooled.  There 
appear  to  be  still  large  reserves  of  ore  in  this  famous  old 
mine.  The  Ouro  Preto,  though  of  less  importance,  maintains 
its  stability. 

The  slow  development  of  the  mining  industry  in  Brazil 
is  due  to  the  difficulty  of  obtaining  mining  rights  where  the 
owners  of  the  land  are  concerned,  as  by  the  law  of  inheritance 


96  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 

this  is  divided  and  subdivided  among  descendants,  giving  rise 
to  complications,  and  exaggerated  claims  when  purchase  is 
to  be  effected ;  for  the  value  of  a  mine,  in  the  view  of  a  Latin 
American  owner,  rises  enormously  if  a  foreign  prospector 
or  miner  makes  an  offer  for  the  property.  As  the  law-makers 
of  the  country  are  also  the  landholders,  improvement  is 
slow,  but  there  are  efforts  of  late  to  adopt  the  excellent  codes 
such  as  in  Mexico  and  Peru  assign  all  mineral  rights  to  the 
state.  The  cost  of  labour  in  Brazilian  mines  is  also  a 
barrier :  as  well  as  that  of  transport.  Brazil,  moreover,  is  in 
general  an  expensive  country  to  live  in.  The  BraziUan 
is  a  good  miner  if  reared  to  the  work  from  his  youth,  but 
he  is  a  bad  time-keeper.  In  the  country  the  worker  is  not 
ambitious  :  he  often  has  a  small  plot  of  maize  and  other 
food  products,  which  he  attends  in  the  intervals  of  mining, 
or  is  often  content  to  live  by  gold-panning  in  the  rivers. 
Italian  and  Spanish  labour  is  good,  but  generally  prefers 
coffee-planting.  The  St.  John  del  Rey  Company  en- 
deavoured to  import  Chinese  when  those  left  the  Rand,  but 
some  Japanese  have  been  imported  at  government  cost, 
and  as  Japan  seeks  a  field  for  emigration  in  Brazil  this  class 
of  labour  may  increase.  Colonies  of  Japanese  have  been 
established  in  agricultural  pursuits — net,  silk,  cereals,  etc. 
The  British  mining  companies  maintain  staffs  of  doctors 
and  equipment  to  contend  against  climatic  difficulties,  at 
a  considerable  cost,  especially  at  Morro  Velho,  and  have 
done  a  good  deal  to  improve  the  condition  of  life  in  this 
respect.  On  the  whole  the  climate  is  good,  the  extreme  range 
of  temperature  at  Morro  Velho  being  56°  to  82''  F.,  but 
tuberculosis,  typhoid,  and  other  diseases  are  encouraged  by 
the  native  method  of  living. 

In  spite  of  the  lack  of  inducement  in  the  past  to  invest 
foreign  capital  in  undertakings  in  Brazil  it  is  remarkable  how 
much  money  has  been  sunk  and  irretrievably  lost  in  gold 
mines  in  the  last  twenty-five  years.  The  loss  is  chiefly  due 
to  the  capital  outlay  which  has  to  be  expended  before  work 
can  be  started,  and  the  heavy  working  cost  per  ton  of  mineral 
as  compared  with  other  countries.  In  the  state  of  ]\Iinas 
Geraes  alone,  of  nine  large  mines   started  with  a  capital 


THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  BRAZIL  97 

outlay  of  £1,250,000,  several  are  in  active  exploitation, 
whilst  the  outlay  of  the  remainder  has  been  lost,  the  result 
chiefly  of  the  burdens  connected  with  transport  and  taxa- 
tion,* Gold  pays  a  state  export  tax  of  3-I  per  cent.,  man- 
ganese and  iron  ore  of  3  per  cent.,  which  cannot  be  considered 
exorbitant. 

A  natural  asset  of  Brazil,  which  under  development  will 
prove  of  value,  is  the  water-power  derivable  from  the  rapid- 
flowing  rivers  in  certain  parts  of  the  republic.  The  numer- 
ous cataracts  and  the  consequent  rapid  change  of  level 
provides  a  head  of  water  under  favourable  economical 
conditions.  Some  of  these  sources  of  power  have  been 
utilised,  notably  in  the  states  of  Sao  Paulo  and  Rio  de 
Janeiro,  where  four  hydro-electric  installations  furnish  some 
63,000  horse  power.  One  of  the  largest  cataracts  is  the 
Paulo  Affaiso  falls,  upon  the  San  Francisco  river,  at  a  point 
about  190  miles  from  its  mouth,  in  the  state  of  Sao  Paulo. 
This  great  cataract,  with  a  difference  of  level  of  nearly  400 
feet,  rivals  Niagara,  both  in  altitude  and  volume,  and  is 
regarded  in  some  respects  as  being  more  striking  in  appear- 
ance. Upon  the  Parana  river  are  the  remarkable  Guayra 
Falls,  over  which  passes  a  volume  of  18,000  cubic  metres  of 
water  per  second,  and  the  roar  of  the  cataract  can  be  heard 
nearly  twenty  miles  away.  The  three  republics  of  Paraguay, 
Argentina  and  Brazil  meet  upon  the  Parana  river,  in  a 
region  of  great  fertility  and  beauty.  The  falls  of  Iguazu, 
situated  at  this  point,  are  a  notable  feature  of  the  river,  and 
are  among  the  largest  of  the  world's  cataracts,  being  210 
feet  high,  as  compared  with  the  164  feet  of  Niagara.  Amid  a 
tropical  setting  of  giant  trees,  orchids  and  the  trailing  forest 
creepers,  the  haunt  of  brilliant  plumaged  birds  and  butter- 
flies, the  falls  are  of  much  beauty.  The  forests  in  this  region 
produce  valuable  cedar  and  hardwoods,  which  are  floated 
down  the  Alto  Parana  to  Corrientes  in  rafts,  and  an  in- 
creasing business  is  done  therewith.  Sugar  cane,  maize, 
bananas,  mandioca,  and  other  useful  food  products  flourish 
where  the  forest  is  cleared.  Water-power  is  capable  of 
development  upon  the  river  to  a  considerable  extent. 

*  Foreign  Office  report. 

G 


98  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

There  are  at  present  no  large  or  exclusively  manufacturing 
districts  in  Brazil,  as  in  Britain,  Germany  or  the  United 
States  ;  industries  being  generally  greatly  scattered,  with 
small  factories  in  straggling  hamlets  which  supply  local 
wants,  and  which  cannot  extend  their  operations  due  to 
lack  of  means  of  transport.  Somewhat  similar  conditions 
obtain  with  regard  to  food  products,  a  variety  of  which  are 
grown  in  every  region.  Thus,  in  Sao  Paulo,  or  Pernambuco, 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  coffee  and  sugar  plantations, 
maize,  manioc,  and  other  foods  are  cultivated.  Manioc  or 
cassava  is  the  chief  food  of  the  labouring  classes.  Each 
village,  and  often  each  family,  has  its  fields.  There  is  but 
little  interchange,  and  the  country  in  this  respect  may  be 
regarded  as  a  collection  of  numerous  small  isolated  markets, 
independent  of  each  other  and  more  or  less  self-supporting. 
This  condition  is  generally  deplored,  but  it  is  open  to  ques- 
tion if  it  has  not  or  may  not  in  the  future  have  some  desir- 
able economic  attributes,  in  tending  to  make  such  locahties 
self-supporting.  In  the  state  of  San  Paulo,  however,  the 
rise  of  manufacture  has  been  marked  ;  industries  of  various 
kinds  having  developed  in  the  last  thirty  years.  At  the 
present  time  there  exist  more  than  300  factories  of  import- 
ance, representing  a  combined  capital  of  £10,000,000, 
whose  aggregate  output  is  calculated  at  £12,000,000 
per  annum,  and  which  give  employment  to  over  30,000 
workpeople.  Principal  among  these  are  the  cotton  factories, 
thirty-four  in  number,  with  a  capital  of  £3,110,000  and  an 
annual  production  of  over  100,000,000  yards  of  cotton 
goods,  employing  many  thousands  of  hands:  breweries, 
fifty-two  in  number  with  a  capital  and  output  respectively 
of  £1,123,000  and  £1,233,000:  iron  foundries,  thirty-eight 
in  number,  thirteen  sugar  factories,  twenty-two  furniture 
factories,  thirty-seven  building  societies,  fifteen  hat  factories, 
twenty-seven  chemical  works,  followed  by  a  lesser  number 
of  flour,  jute,  woollen,  paper,  match,  food,  boot,  glassware, 
leather,  tobacco,  and  other  factories  and  mills,  reveahng 
the  growing  industrial  activity  in  manufacture  of  this 
progressive  state.  The  imports  from  Great  Britain  into 
the  state   amounted   annually  to  a   value   of  more   than 


THE  UNITED   STATES    OF   BRAZIL  99 

/3,ooo,ooo,  principally  in  railway  material,  machin- 
ery, cotton  goods  and  coal.  The  imports  from  Italy  were 
of  more  than  a  million  pounds  value,  showing  the  relations 
kept  up  between  the  Italian  settlers  and  the  motherland. 

The  advisability  of  a  wider  distribution  of  food  products 
is  being  recognised  in  Brazil,  and  the  Department  of  Agri- 
culture has  begun  to  develop  a  policy  of  policulture,  as 
supplementary  to  monoculture,  especially  in  the  state  of  Sao 
Paulo,  and  congresses  and  co-operative  societies  have  been 
organised  and  lectures  and  practical  demonstrations  given 
and  seed  distributed.  The  state  has  granted  a  subsidy  of 
6  per  cent,  per  annum  upon  a  capital  of  ^'4,000,000  pounds  for 
the  working  of  a  land  bank,  estabhshed  in  the  capital,  with 
some  twenty  branches  in  the  principal  towns,  the  object 
being  to  advance  money  on  real  estate  and  on  produce 
warrants,  at  interest  not  exceeding  7  per  cent,  per  annum. 
This  has  been  of  value  to  the  cultivators,  who  formerly  were 
obliged  to  pay  12  to  18  per  cent  on  borrowed  funds.  A 
Forestry  Department  has  also  been  organised,  with  the  object 
of  conserving  the  forests  and  planting  new  timber.  A  law 
was  passed  in  1902  penalising  the  further  planting  of  coffee, 
which  has  resulted  in  greater  care  and  attention  being  be- 
stowed upon  the  existing  fazendas,  and  has  encouraged  the 
cultivation  of  other  products.  The  matter  of  increased  rice 
cultivation — which  went  out  at  the  time  of  the  rise  of 
coffee— is  of  importance  to  the  state.  Some  thousands  of 
Japanese  are  being  imported  to  cultivate  rice  in  the  damp 
coastlands  south  of  Santos.  There  are  130  rice  mills  in  the 
state,  and  this  and  the  cotton  industry  increase  rapidly. 
These  benefits  brought  about  in  the  state  of  Sao  Paulo 
may  be  the  forerunners  of  improvements  in  other  states. 

As  regards  the  pastoral  industries,  the  vast  plains  and 
great  plateaux  of  the  temperate  or  sub-tropical  states  of 
Brazil  afford  unlimited  field,  but  these  fail  to  meet  the 
requirements  of  the  country's  development.  Quantities  of 
jerked  beef,  or  "  Charqui,"  were  formed}/  imported  from 
Argentina  and  Uruguay,  but  there  is  now  an  export,  to- 
gether with  (1920)  61,000  tons  of  chilled  meat  and  37,000 
tons  of  hides.    In  the  state  of  Rio  de  Janeiro  the  herds  are 


100  SOUTH  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 

increasing,  and  in  Minas  Geraes  dairy  products  are  en- 
gaging attention,  as  well  as  the  raising  of  beef.  Cattle- 
raising  in  Matto  Grosso  is  hampered  at  present  by  the 
lack  of  accessible  markets.  The  former  considerable  cattle- 
breeding  industry  of  Bahia  has  suffered  by  reason  of  long 
and  growing  droughts.  In  Rio  Grande  do  Sul  the  jerked 
beef  industry  has  attained  the  greatest  development,  and 
nearly  half  a  milHon  beeves  are  slaughtered  annually  to 
supply  it.  Sheep-raising  has  received  but  little  attention, 
but  there  is  an  export  of  wool  from  some  of  the  Atlantic 
states. 

The  gaucho  of  Brazil,  and  the  corresponding  region  of  the 
vast  pasture-lands  shared  by  Argentina,  Uruguay  and 
Paraguay,  is  the  principal  representative  of  a  type  of  what 
was  exemphfied  in  western  North  America  by  the  cow- 
boy— but  of  another  race.  The  gaucho  is  a  picturesque 
and  almost  romantic  figure,  a  product  of  environment  and 
tradition,  a  creature  of  his  kind  rather  than  of  any  particular 
nationality.  From  his  earliest  boyhood  he  is  accustomed 
to  be  astride  a  horse's  back  ;  even  as  a  youthful  diversion  : 
with  a  rawhide  thong  in  lieu  of  bridle,  and  a  saddle  consist- 
ing merely  of  a  strip  of  sheepskin  and  a  cinch.  The  pro- 
fessional gaucho  of  the  state  of  Rio  Grande  do  Sul  is  an 
expert  horseman,  expert  also  with  his  lasso  and  the  "  bolia- 
deira  "  ;  the  latter  implement  consisting  in  a  thong  and 
two  balls,  which,  thrown  unerringly,  winds  round  a  fleeing 
animal's  legs  and  brings  it  to  the  ground.  This  species  of 
lasso  is  peculiar  to  the  South  American  cattle-man,  and  is 
unknown  to  the  Mexican  vaquero,  who  in  his  turn  is  no  less 
expert  with  horse  and  reata,  or  lasso,  than  the  gaucho. 
The  gaucho  is  trained  to  be  devoid  of  fear ;  a  charging  bull, 
coming  at  him  from  the  herd  with  purposeful  fury,  is  calmly 
awaited,  and  received  with  blows  across  the  muzzle  from 
a  short  whip,  the  only  weapon,  and  retires  worsted.  Such 
encounters,  which  are  elsewhere  tricks  of  the  experienced 
torero  or  bull  fighters  in  the  arena,  are  matters  of  everyday 
routine  with  the  gaucho  of  Brazil.  He  prides  himself  on 
his  dexterity,  like  his  brother  of  Mexico,  and  if  his  horse 
falls  amid  a  stampeding  herd  of  cattle,  he  is  quick  to  avoid 


THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  BRAZIL  loi 

the  trampling  hoofs,  which  for  another  would  mean  instant 
death,  and  to  remount.  In  the  remote  prairie,  for  his  single 
daily  meal,  the  gaucho  lassoes  a  steer,  brings  it  to  the  ground, 
kills  it  and  cuts  off  a  portion  of  hide  with  flesh  and  lays 
it  on  the  embers  of  his  camp  fire  to  cook  it  ;  and  eats  it 
with  farinha,  washed  down  with  water,  or  often  wine  or 
aguardiente.  Then  follows  the  customary  mate,  taken  hot, 
and  a  bed  formed  of  a  poncho  and  saddle-cloths.  The 
life  on  the  estancias,  or  cattle  ranges,  has  the  compensation 
for  the  gaucho  of  activity  and  independence,  in  which  he 
revels.  It  is  hard,  but  the  work  is  not  necessarily  laborious. 
The  estancieros,  or  range-owners,  do  little  more  than  leave  the 
cattle  to  multiply  on  the  natural  pasture,  and  the  beasts 
practically  take  care  of  themselves.  Fattening  cattle  gives 
comparatively  little  work,  except  that  of  fencing  off  an 
area  of  ground  for  them.  The  ticks  and  insect  pests  work 
their  will  on  the  herd  until  the  frost  kills  them  ;  the  old  hay 
is  burned  off  the  ground  to  make  way  for  the  new  crop,  and 
occasionally  some  salt  is  thrown  to  the  cattle,  which  at  the 
end  of  the  winter  are  all  bought  on  the  ground  by  the  buyer 
from  the  "  charqui "  factory,  or  saladero,  whether  good  or  bad, 
fat  or  lean.  The  gaucho  lives  in  his  hut  on  soriie  hillock 
of  the  prairie,  and  will  not  dwell  in  the  town,  even  if  his 
profession  permitted  such.  His  wide-brimmed  felt  hat, 
silken  or  woollen  poncho,  huge  silk  neck-handkerchief  and 
leather  belt,  adorned  with  silver  coins  ;  his  raw  hide  boots 
and  enormous  silver  spurs  and  other  trappings,  are  for  him 
the  habiliments  he  desires,  and  in  any  other  environment 
he  would  languish.  Work,  feasting,  mate  drinking,  gambling, 
and  fighting ;  these  are  his  pastimes,  and  no  ornate  palace 
of  modern  Rio  de  Janeiro  would  ever  tempt  him  to  abandon 
them. 

The  following  list  shows  the  principal  Brazilian  ex- 
ported articles  for  1918-20;  values  in  thousands  of  poimds 
sterhng,  f.o.b.  Brazil.  These  are  from  figures  furnished 
officially. 


102 


SOUTH  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 


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THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  BRAZIL  103 

A  further  valuable  article  of  export  is  rice,  whose  sudden 
growth  from  three  tons  in  1915  to  a  value  of  £5,803,000  in 
1920  is  remarkable.  The  frozen  and  chilled  meat  industry 
has  come  to  being  since  the  war:  the  first  export,  in  1914, 
was  less  than  two  tons,  Vv^hilst  in  1920  the  value  was 
£4,064,000.  The  export  of  timber  for  the  same  year  was 
valued  at  £1,200,000,  The  total  value  of  the  exports  for 
1920  was  1,752,400  contos,  and  of  the  imports  2,090,630 
contos  (a  conto  =1,000  milreis,  or  at  par  =£112  los.),  the 
United  States  taking  of  the  exports  a  value  of  £45,000,000; 
France,  £12,850,000;  British  Empire,  £8,760,000;  Germany, 
£6,200,000.  The  imports  from  the  United  States  were,  in 
contos,  880,200;  Great  Britain,  453,000;  France,  117,000; 
Germany,  104,900;  Italy,  50,000;  Belgium,  38,900;  Portu- 
gal, 43,000;  India,  18,900;  Canada,  11,000.  Among  the 
principal  imports  are  machinery,  etc.,  materials  of  con- 
struction, coal,  petroleum  and  textiles,  etc. 

The  total  amount  of  British  capital  invested  in  Brazil 
reaches  £220,000,000  in  bonds  and  shares  quoted  on  the 
London  Stock  Exchange,  figures  which  serve  to  shew  the 
very  considerable  property  of  British  shareholders  in  the 
Republic.  British  banking  interests  are  also  predominant, 
and  the  three  principal  banks  in  Brazil  founded  from  London, 
have  an  aggregate  capital  many  times  exceeding  that  of  all 
other  nationalities  combined.  The  financial  and  commercial, 
as  indeed  the  political  relations  between  Britain  and  Brazil 
are  traditionally  cordial,  and  the  Republic  owes  much  of 
its  prosperity  to  the  earlier  influx  of  capital  from  the  United 
Kingdom,  upon  which  many  of  its  chief  public  works  were 
built  up. 

In  the  Great  War,  Brazil  declared  itself  on  the  side  of  the 
Allies,  and  the  Republic  co-operated  with  them  to  the  extent 
of  actively  assisting  with  its  navy,  sending  forces  to  the 
Western  Front,  and  forwarding  supplies. 

The  national  revenue  of  Brazil  increased  greatly  in  the  ten 
years  from  1902  to  1911,  nearly  doubling  itself,  from  320,000 
contos  to  506,000  contos.  The  expenditure,  however,  rose 
in  the  same  period  from  300,000  contos  to  600,000  contos, 
with  a  corresponding  deficit.  The  external  debt  reached  in 
iqii  nearly  £83,000,000  and  300,000,000  francs,  shewing  a 


104  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

considerable  increase  over  the  preceding  year,  due  mainly 
to  the  loan  for  Rio  Port  works  and  the  Ceara  railways.  The 
fund  for  the  redemption  of  the  paper  currency  reached 
47,000,000  contos.  The  economic  condition  of  the  country 
was  regarded  by  its  ministers  as  excellent  in  view  of  increased 
revenue  from  Custom  house  and  internal  taxes,  which 
indicated  commercial  and  industrial  improvement,*  The 
external  debt  at  the  close  of  1920  was  £103,035,000  and 
322,250,000  francs.  The  revenue  in  1920  was  7,534  contos 
over  expenditure. 

The  general  plan  of  commercial  development  in  Brazil, 
as  shewn  by  the  government  policy,  is  to  bring  about  greater 
independence,  by  developing  both  the  food  supphes  of 
the  country  and  stimulating  home  manufacture.  This 
must  be  regarded  as  a  wise  principle,  from  the  point  of  view 
of  disinterested  economics.  It  may  be  possible,  taking 
into  account  the  varied  resources  of  the  country,  to  carry 
the  principle  into  effect  in  the  future,  but  the  Brazilian, 
having  acquired  wealth,  and  possessing  a  native  love  of 
display,  must  continue  to  purchase  from  abroad  many 
articles  he  cannot  manufacture  at  home.  For  this  luxury 
heavy  taxation  is  incurred,  and  except  for  the  poorest  class, 
the  cost  of  living  in  Brazil  is  extremely  high.  With  the 
growth  of  democracy — it  is  to  be  recollected  that  as  a 
republic  Brazil  is  only  thirty-three  years  old — a  more 
equitable  adjustment  of  the  affairs  of  the  republic  will 
doubtless  grow  to  being,  and  it  is  in  the  education  and 
upraising  of  its  great  masses  of  population  that  the  policy  of 
the  government  should  be  exercised :  side  by  side  with  its 
good  policy  of  national  industry-planning. 

*  Supplementing  the  table  on  page  102,  the  1921  imports  and  exports 
of  Brazil  fell  by  50  per  cent,  from  those  of  1920,  or  imports  value 
;^6o,468,ooo,  and  exports  ^^58,580,000.  There  were  many  commercial 
failures  owing  to  trade  depression. 


THE  AMAZON  VALLEY  105 


CHAPTER  HI 
THE  AMAZON  VALLEY 

The  possession  of  the  great  Amazon  Valley  confers  upon 
Brazil  a  topographical  distinction  possessed  by  no  other 
nation  in  Latin  America  :  except  that  Peru,  Bolivia  and 
other  adjoining  republics  share  it  to  a  less  extent.  The 
Amazon  is  the  largest  river  in  the  world  :  flowing  from  its 
most  remote  source  to  the  sea  for  4,000  miles,  and  possess- 
ing innumerable  navigable  tributaries  in  addition.  In 
some  respects  this  giant  stream  is  the  most  interesting  and 
mysterious  upon  the  globe,  both  as  concerns  its  history  and 
its  topography. 

The  tributaries  of  the  Amazon  have  their  rise  in  the  per- 
petual snow  cap  of  the  Andes,  above  the  high  tablelands 
and  valleys  of  Peru  and  Bolivia,  which  were  the  seat  of  a 
civilisation  as  old  perhaps  as  those  of  Mesopotamia  and  the 
Nile — the  ancient  empire  of  the  Incas  and  the  still  older 
cultures  of  their  predecessors,  the  ruins  of  whose  buildings 
are  still  encountered  in  profusion  upon  headland  and  hill. 
Flowing  thence  through  a  series  of  mighty  canons,  forming 
the  most  rugged  and  least-known  country  on  the  face  of 
the  globe,  the  affluents  of  the  Amazon  traverse  for  thousands 
of  miles  the  dense  forests  which  clothe  the  heart  of  South 
America,  and  form  one  great  waterway,  navigable  for  trans- 
atlantic steamers  for  nearly  3,000  miles  from  the  mouth ; 
with  a  delta  larger  than  that  of  the  Nile  and  the  Ganges 
combined.  The  basin  or  valley  of  the  Amazon,  including 
the  broad  region  forming  the  Amazon  watershed,  embraces 
portions  of  six  of  the  South  American  republics — Brazil,  Peru, 
Bolivia,  Colombia,  Ecuador  and  Venezuela — and  constitutes 
one  of  the  most  backward  regions  of  the  globe.     The  area 


io6  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 

comprised  is  equal  to  four-tenths  of  the  entire  area  of  South 
America.  Yet  less  than  a  hundred  square  miles  of  this  enor- 
mous region  are  under  cultivation,  whilst  its  total  population, 
including  the  Indians  of  the  forests,  does  not  exceed  three 
quarters  of  a  million  souls.  During  the  end  of  the  nine- 
teenth and  first  decade  of  the  twentieth  centuries  these 
Indians  have  been  greatly  reduced  in  number,  partly  by  the 
methods  of  the  rubber  merchants,  whole  tribes  having 
been  sacrificed  under  the  system  of  forced  labour:  partly 
due  to  tropical  diseases  and  vices  learned  from  the  white 
man. 

Ever  since  the  time  of  Orellana,  the  lieutenant  of  Pizarro, 
who  in  1540  descended  the  Amazon  from  Ecuador,  and 
Pedro  de  Texiera,  who  ascended  it  in  1639,  and  who  were  the 
first  white  men  to  do  so,  the  Amazon  has  hung  back  in  its 
economic  development.  Even  at  the  present  time,  along 
the  great  tributary  streams^themselves  rivers  of  thousands 
of  miles  in  length — great  distance  may  be  traversed  without 
encountering  a  single  native.  But  this  was  not  always  so, 
and  the  depopulation  is  due  partly  to  the  acts  of  the  early 
Portuguese  colonists  and  authorities  :  for,  during  the  three 
centuries  of  Portuguese  domination  of  the  valley  of  the 
Amazon,  the  huge  region  was  closed  to  the  commercial  world, 
and  within  this  close  period  the  primitive,  docile  native 
population  was  enslaved,  abused  and  destroyed,  with  no 
mitaigting  circumstances  attending  this  ruthless  domination 
except  that  of  the  devotion  of  the  Jesuit  fathers.  The 
destruction  wrought  by  Spaniards  among  the  natives  of 
the  Mexican  and  Peruvian  uplands  was  duplicated  by  the 
Portuguese  among  the  inhabitants  of  the  Amazonian  forests, 
and  the  effect  of  their  ravages  remain  to  this  day.  What 
those  ruthless  Conquistadores  left  undone  is  being  accom- 
plished by  the  rubber  gatherers  and  merchants,  especially 
in  Peru,  and  by  hardship  and  disease. 

The  remotest  sources  of  the  Am.azon  are  in  the  Peruvian 
Andes,  upon  the  upper  Marafion,  whose  origin  lies  slightly 
beyond  lake  Lauricocha  ;  and  upon  the  Ucayali,  the  birth- 
place of  whose  affluent,  the  Apurimac,  is  near  Caylloma. 
The  numerous  smaller  tributaries  which  unite  to  form  the 


THE   AMAZON   VALLEY  107 

great  tributaries  of  the  Amazon  rise  at  elevations  of  14,000 
to  16,000  feet  above  sea  level,  and  are  fed  by  the  permanent 
snow  cap  and  the  constant  rain  storms  of  those  regions.  The 
Peruvian  Amazon  tributaries,  the  Maranon,  the  Huallaga, 
the  Ucayali  and  others  flow  northwardly  in  a  direction 
roughly  parallel  with  the  trend  of  the  Andes  for  a  thousand 
miles  or  more  before  turning  eastwardly  to  cross  the  Amazon 
plain  through  Brazil.  At  the  turning  point  they  are  joined 
by  some  of  the  more  important  tributaries  which  descend 
from  Ecuador  and  Colombia.  The  headwaters  of  the  great 
Beni  and  Madre  de  Dios  are  in  Bolivia  and  Peru,  and  these 
rivers  traverse  an  enormous  area  of  territory,  forming  the 
southerly  limit  of  the  Amazon  basin  and  falling  into  the 
Amazon  in  Brazil. 

Portions  of  the  region  traversed  by  these  rivers  are  among 
the  still  savage  areas  of  the  earth's  surface,  and  the  most 
difficult  to  explore.  There  is  still  a  certain  amount  of  danger 
from  blow-pipe  bearing  Indians,  but  the  chief  obstacles  to 
travel  are  the  broken  nature  of  the  country,  the  impene- 
trable forests,  through  which  the  torrential  rivers  are  almost 
the  only  highways,  and  greatest  of  all  the  difficulty  of  trans- 
porting a  sufficient  quantity  of  provisions  for  consumption 
during  the  exploration.  Mosquitoes  and  malaria,  the  heavy 
rains,  and  in  some  cases  the  unreliability  of  the  native  in 
transport  and  escort  work,  are  added  difficulties.  The 
danger  from  wild  beasts  has  been  greatly  exaggerated  ; 
the  Amazon  forests  from  time  to  time  have  been  represented 
as  teeming  with  beasts  of  prey,  but  in  reality  the  traveller 
may  pursue  his  journey  day  after  day  and  scarcely  disturb 
bird  or  beast.  The  most  dangerous  and  troublesome  crea- 
ture in  these  savage  regions  is  the  mosquito  and  its  kindred, 
it  is  scarcely  an  exaggeration  to  say.  Except  by  actual 
travel  no  adequate  idea  of  the  Amazon  forests  can  be 
obtained  ;  of  the  alternating  splendour  and  gloom  of  the 
superabundant  vegetations,  and  the  impenetrable  walls  of 
foliage  presented  by  the  dense  vegetation. 

The  main  stream  of  the  Amazon  is  navigable  for  ocean 
steamers  in  favourable  seasons  3,000  miles  from  its  mouth 
to  its  junction  with  the  Huallaga  in  Peru,  and  in  addition 


io8  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 

to  the  principal  course  there  are  many  navigable  side 
channels  which  run  parallel  thereto,  almost  as  far  as  the 
confluence  with  the  Yavari.  Numerous  tributaries  are 
navigable  for  steamers  of  lesser  draught,  and  the  total 
length  of  navigable  waterways  serving  the  Amazon  valley, 
throughout  Bolivia,  Brazil  and  Peru,  is  calculable  as  over 
a  hundred  thousand  miles.  Iquitos,  the  eastern  capital 
of  Peru,  the  terminus  of  the  ocean  steamer -line  from  Europe, 
is  2,500  miles  from  the  Atlantic.  A  British  war- vessel  a  few 
years  ago  ascended  the  Amazon  to  Iquitos,  displaying  the 
white  ensign  for  the  first  time  in  the  very  heart  of  South 
America.  Some  years  ago  Iquitos  became  notorious  due 
to  the  exposure  of  the  atrocities  of  the  Putumayo,  which 
river  enters  the  Amazon  from  the  north-west,  from  Colombia 
and  Peru.  At  Tabatinga,  the  Brazil-Peru  frontier,  2,000 
miles  from  the  southern  m.outh  of  the  river  below  Para,  the 
Amazon  is  more  than  9,000  feet  wide,  and  the  depth  of  its 
channel  under  normal  conditions  is  66  feet,  with  a  current 
velocity  of  about  i|  miles  an  hour:  figures  which  serve  to 
shew  the  importance  of  the  waterway.  Among  the  larger 
tributaries  of  the  Amazon  are  the  Madeira,  which  rises  in 
Peru  and  Bolivia,  and  flows  for  2,000  miles  to  its  confluence 
with  the  Amazon ;  the  Purus,  also  2,000  miles  long,  and  the 
Junia,  more  than  2,000  miles  long.  The  Tocantins — practi- 
cally a  separate  system — and  the  Araguaya,  flowing  from  the 
south  across  Brazil,  are  each  over  1,600  miles  long  ;  whilst 
the  Tapajos,  the  Xingu,  the  Japura,  the  Guapore,  the  Rio 
Negro,  the  lea  or  Putumayo,  measure,  in  the  order  of  their 
enumeration,  from  1,200  down  to  900  miles  in  length.  The 
Peruvian  Amazon  is  elsewhere  described. 

The  Amazon  forest  extends  from  the  Atlantic  ocean  back 
to  the  Andes  for  more  than  2,500  miles,  but  its  width  varies 
greatly,  being  perhaps  200  miles  wide  on  the  coast  and  about 
900  miles  wide  between  the  plains  of  Venezuela  on  the  north 
and  those  of  Bolivia  on  the  south,  upon  the  slopes  of  the 
Andes.  The  marvellously  rich  flora  of  the  Amazon  region 
is  classed  among  the  wonders  of  the  world.  As  regards 
animal  life,  the  Manati,  or  sea-cow,  which  inhabits  the  lower 
Amazon,  sometimes  reaching  15  or  20  feet  in  length,  is  among 


THE  AMAZON  VALLEY  109 

the  most  remarkable  mammals  in  the  world.  Fifty  species 
of  monkeys  are  encountered,  and  the  sloth,  the  tapir,  the 
peccary,  and  the  jaguar  are  well-known  denizens.  The 
flooded  areas  of  forest  are  highly  favourable  for  the  develop- 
ment of  reptiles,  chief  among  which  is  the  alligator,  and 
some  of  the  species  are  dangerous  and  voracious.  Turtles 
are  so  numerous  that  the  eggs  and  flesh  of  these  reptiles 
have  always  furnished  food  for  the  Indian  tribes.  The 
enormous  size  of  the  boa  constrictor  renders  this  reptile  one 
of  the  most  remarkable  of  the  Amazon  valley.  The  num- 
erous species  of  birds  provide  many  of  the  most  brilliant 
plumage,  but  they  are  generally  poor  in  good  songsters. 

The  average  rainfall  of  the  Amazon  valley  has  been  esti- 
mated at  nearly  79  inches.  The  maximum  rise  of  the  annual 
flood  is  45  feet  ;  two  floods  occurring  annually,  one  in 
November  and  December  and  one  from  March  to  June  ; 
the  latter  the  main  flood,  which  finally  subsides  in  October. 
The  short  dry  season  on  the  upper  Amazon  is  in  January  and 
February,  and  in  May  a  brief  cold  period  is  experienced. 

The  principal  characteristics  of  the  forests  of  the  Amazon 
valley,  apart  from  their  enormous  extent,  is  the  great  variety 
of  genera  and  species.  In  the  temperate  zones  of  North 
America  and  Europe  forests  of  a  single  species,  or  of  three  or 
four  species,  prevail,  but  in  the  enormous  jungle  of  the 
Amazon,  which  embodies  the  largest  virgin  area  of  woods 
upon  the  earth's  surface  at  the  present  time,  the  solitary 
habit  of  growth  is  shewn  by  the  fact  that  a  single  acre  of 
ground  may  contain  hundreds  of  different  species  of  tree 
and  shrub  hfe,  including  palms,  acacias,  myrtles,  mimosas 
and  others.  This  condition  is  a  drawback  to  a  profitable 
lumber  trade,  although  profits  may  be  made  out  of  indi- 
vidual kinds.  The  vegetation  differs  between  the  lower  river- 
margins,  which  are  flooded  at  regular  intervals,  and  the 
higher  ground,  as  well  as  between  the  Amazon  and  its  tribu- 
taries. The  lianas,  which  overgrow  even  the  tallest  trees, 
greatly  increase  the  density  of  the  forest.  The  trees  are  not 
necessarily  of  great  height  in  the  Amazon  valley,  some  species 
reaching  only  200  feet,  whilst  the  general  height  is  but  half 
that,  especially  in  the  plains  subject  to  the  annual  floods. 


no  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 

The  largest  is  the  "  cow-tree  "  or  Massaranduba,  so  named 
from  its  abundance  of  milky  sap.  The  timber  of  this  tree 
is  valuable  for  shipbuilding,  and  the  latex  or  milk  is  of  value 
in  rubber  curing,  and  is  also  exported  for  medicinal  purposes. 
Cabinet  woods  are  not  very  abundantly  exported,  taking 
into  consideration  the  capabilities  of  the  huge  forests ;  and 
this  is  due  largely  to  the  cost  of  timber  transport  on  the 
coast. 

The  general  characteristic  of  most  of  the  Amazonian  timber 
is  an  extreme  hardness,  some  of  the  woods  being  more  like 
metal  than  vegetable  fibre,  and  the  hard  and  often  extremely 
beautiful  woods  of  northern  Brazil  are  mainly  of  use  to  the 
constructor  of  railways  and  the  cabinet  maker.*  For  railway 
sleepers  some  of  the  local  timbers  are  admirably  suited, 
notably  the  "  cow  tree  ; "  and  in  the  construction  of  the 
Madeira-Mamore  railway,  sleepers  of  this  wood  have  been 
used.  This  wood  displays  considerable  power  of  resistance, 
whether  exposed  or  half  exposed  to  air  and  weather. 
Many  of  the  local  woods  are  suitable  for  pile  driving  and  boat 
building,  and  for  ordinary  furniture  and  household  fittings 
the  local  "  cedar  "  wood  is  excellent,  being  light  but  strong 
and  susceptible  of  a  very  high  polish.  The  Amazon  cedar 
tree  grows  to  an  immense  height.  One  of  the  floating 
trees  of  this  wood,  picked  up  in  the  river,  measured  93  feet 
from  the  swell  of  the  root  to  the  first  branch,  and  at  this 
point,  which  would  have  been  about  8  feet  from  the  ground 
had  the  tree  been  standing,  the  girth  was  19. feet.  The 
town  of  Itacoatiara,  lying  opposite  the  mouth  of  the  Madeira, 
is  the  centre  of  the  cedar  supply  in  the  state  of  Amazonas, 
and  there  are  several  large  sawmills  there. 

The  export  of  Brazil  nuts  at  times  is  second  in  value 
only  to  that  of  rubber  from  Para  and  Amazonas.  The 
ordinary  nut,  the  Bertholetia,  develops  inside  a  hard 
shell,  twenty  or  more  nuts  being  almost  hermetically 
sealed  within,  forming  a  strong  weighty  capsule,  which 
when  fallen  the  natives  split  open.  The  tree  grows  on  open 
ground,  and  is  one  of  the  loftiest  trees  of  the  Amazon 
forest,  growing  to  an  immense  height,  and  of  three  or  four 

•  Foreign  Office  report  (Casement),  1908. 


THE  AMAZON   VALLEY  iii 

feet  in  diameter.  The  collection  of  the  nuts  is  at  times 
dangerous,  as  the  heavy  capsules  are  as  hard  as  iron, 
difficult  to  saw  with  the  sharpest  instrument,  and  equal  in 
weight  to  a  small  cannon  ball,  and  the  gatherer  does  not 
generally  venture  beneath  the  tree  when  the  wind  blows 
for  fear  of  the  projectiles  falling  upon  him  from  the  great 
height,  but  waits  until  they  are  fallen.  The  Sapucaya,  the 
other  variety,  has  its  capsule  furnished  with  a  species  of 
lid,  which  opens  and  the  nuts  are  scattered  in  all  directions, 
being  lost  in  the  water  or  eaten  by  wild  animals.  Con- 
sequently its  value  to  the  gatherer  is  less,  and  its  price 
higher  in  the  market.  As  well  known,  the  nuts  themselves 
have  a  very  hard  shell,  even  inside  their  iron-hke  outer 
shell,  and  the  extreme  hardness  of  nature's  products,  both 
in  these  fruit  coverings  and  in  the  hard  woods  in  the  Amazon 
forest,  is  a  curious  circumstance.  The  Brazil  nut  tree  is 
a  prominent  member  of  the  forest,  and  the  collection  of  the 
nuts  requires  little  more  capital  than  that  involved  in  the 
possession  of  a  boat  ;  and  the  industry  might  be  increased, 
in  view  of  the  high  price  of  the  nuts  in  foreign  markets. 

The  native  products  of  cocoa,  nuts,  and  cattle  breeding 
might  be  the  basis  of  more  important  industry.  Over  a 
length  of  i,6oo  miles  up  the  Amazon  and  its  main  tributaries, 
cocoa  trees  are  to  be  seen  growing  around  the  huts  of  the 
semi-aquatic  riverine  dwellers,  often  submerged  in  the  flood 
of  the  river,  which  frequently  ruins  the  plants.  Beyond  the 
reach  of  this  periodical  overflow  the  ground  often  rises  in 
ridges  capable  of  easy  cultivation,  and  were  methodical 
agricultural  life  existent  along  the  Amazon  water-ways, 
the  output  of  cocoa,  and  a  wealth  of  other  food  sup- 
plies, would  be  only  a  question  of  organised  labour.  The 
methods  of  production  to-day  are,  however,  little  in  advance 
of  those  the  early  settlers  must  have  adopted  from  the  native. 
It  is  only  another  proof  of  the  natural  wealth  of  the  Amazon 
valley  that,  despite  this  apathy  and  want  of  system,  the  out- 
put of  cocoa  should  be  so  considerable.  Even  in  the  middle 
of  the  last  century,  when  slave  labour  prevailed,  cocoa 
rivalled  rubber  as  one  of  the  two  chief  articles  of  export 
from  Para. 


112  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH  AMERICA 

As  regards  the  cattle  industry,  the  chief  source  of  the 
local  beef  supply  is  the  island  of  Marajo,  which  Hes  in  the 
mouth  of  the  Amazon  to  the  north  of  Para.  A  stock  of 
some  300,000  animals  is  said  to  exist  on  the  broad,  swampy 
savannahs  of  this  island — a  small  number  when  it  is  con- 
sidered that  Marajo  is  usually  spoken  of  as  "as  large  as 
Sicily,"  and  consists  chiefly  in  grass  lands. 

The  island  was,  in  the  early  days  of  Portuguese  adventure, 
inhabited  by  a  numerous  Indian  population,  whose  villages 
and  burial  sites  may  still  be  traced.  To-day  it  is  a  land  of 
cattle  ranching,  the  ranches  diversified  by  wide  lagoons  and 
lakes,  connected  by  many  igaripes,  or  creeks,  and  iilled  with 
innumerable  alhgators  and  turtles.  The  city  of  Para  con- 
sumes annually  20,000  head  of  cattle,  raised  within  the 
state  limits,  besides  beef  imported  from  Argentina,  and  a 
further  20,000  head  of  beasts  locally  raised  are  annually 
used  in  the  outlying  townships  of  the  state.  The  cattle- 
raising  districts  of  the  Lower  Amazon  are  all  liable  to 
annual  inundation  in  May  and  June,  when  the  river  is  at 
its  greatest  height,  and  numbers  of  beasts  are  drowned  and 
taken  by  alligators.  The  loss  due  to  this  cause  has  been 
put  as  high  as  90,000  head  in  a  single  year  (1898),  and  it  is 
a  common  sight,  when  passing  a  cattle  fazenda  or  estate,  to 
see  from  the  deck  of  the  steamer  the  cattle  standing  up  to 
their  necks  in  the  water. 

Under  present  conditions  the  rubber  export  is  the  principal 
industry,  coming  second  in  importance  to  coffee  in  Brazilian 
trade,  and  yielding  one-third  of  the  income  of  the  republic. 
Almost  the  entire  output  of  rubber  is  from  the  uncultivated 
forest  ;  plantations  being  few  in  number.  The  rubber 
forests  of  Brazil  are  capable  of  practically  inexhaustible 
supphes,  and  were  all  other  sources  cut  off,  Brazil  would 
still  be  able  to  meet  the  major  portion  of  the  demands  of 
the  world's  commerce.  Nevertheless,  the  competition  of 
the  newer  rubber-producing  regions  of  Malaysia,  many  of 
whose  plantations  are  coming  into  bearing  and  proving  a 
commercial  success,  will  have  their  effect  upon  the  wild 
rubber  industry  of  Brazil.  The  increased  output  and  easier 
and  more  methodical  means  of  collection  of  the  planted 


THE  AMAZON  VALLEY  113 

rubber  tends  to  cause  a  marked  decrease  in  the  price  of 
the  article  ;  conditions  which  have  been  carefully  watched  by 
the  Brazilian  Government,  who  have  grasped  the  necessity 
for  the  improvement  of  the  industry  in  the  Amazon  valley. 
With  this  purpose  in  view  new  measures  have  been  adopted, 
based  upon  decrees  made  in  January  and  April,  1912,*  for 
the  protection  and  development  of  the  forests  and  the 
workers  ;  regulations  which,  if  carried  into  effect,  should 
result  in  improved  conditions.  The  elaborate  clauses  of 
these  decrees  provide  for  the  construction  of  light  railways, 
the  estabhshing  of  new  "  colonies  "  and  rubber  gathering 
centres,  the  paying  of  prizes  and  premiums  for  the  systematic 
planting  and  cultivation  of  the  various  kinds  of  rubber  trees, 
the  creation  of  experimental  stations,  the  subsidising  by 
cash  payments  of  factories  for  refining  and  treatment  of 
the  crude  rubber,  the  furnishing  of  carefully  selected  seeds 
to  planters,  the  establishing  and  upkeep  of  hospitals  for 
the  rubber  gatherers  in  the  forests,  the  freeing  from  import 
duty  of  all  appliances  used  in  the  industry,  the  creation  of 
centres  and  plantations  for  the  production  of  cereals  and 
foodstuffs  and  of  cattle  farms,  with  concessions  to  companies 
establishing  such,  with  money  grants  for  cultivation,  and 
the  assistance  of  native  or  foreign  immigrants  ;  and  in  brief, 
a  scientific  and  methodical  plan  for  the  development  of 
the  industry.  The  varieties  of  rubber  encountered  in  Brazil 
which  are  specially  made  the  subject  of  cultivation  in  the 
decrees  are  the  seringa,  caucho,  Manitoba,  and  Mangabeira. 
Upon  a  plantation  and  semi-plantation  basis  there  is  little 
doubt  that  far  better  results  are  to  be  attained,  but  these 
will  be  dependent  upon  the  honesty  of  the  administration 
connected  therewith  and  upon  the  availability  of  labour. 
It  further  remains  to  be  seen  if  artificial  rubber  is  to  be  a 
competitor  in  the  future. 

The  city  of  Manaos  was  created  by  the  rubber  trade,  and 
is  the  geographical  centre  of  the  Amazon  valley,  as  well 
as  the  distributing  point  of  its  civihsation.  It  is  reached  by 
ocean  steamers  from  Liverpool  and  New  York,  and  the 
navigable  waterv\'ays  extend  far  beyond,  to  the  foot  of  the 

*  Brazilian  government  documents. 

H 


114  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH  AMERICA 

Colombian,  Bolivian  and  Peruvian  Andes.  The  city  stands 
near  the  confluence  of  the  Rio  Negro  and  Amazon.  The 
black  waters  of  the  Negro,  coming  down  from  the  north,  for 
a  thousand  miles,  from  the  forests  of  Venezuela,  Colombia 
and  Ecuador,  mingle  with  the  muddy  stream  of  the  Amazon. 
Below  ]\Ianaos  the  great  Madeira  river  enters  the  Amazon, 
coming  from  the  south-west.  A  thousand  miles  up  stream 
the  terminus  of  the  new  Madeira-Mamore  railway  is  reached 
by  ocean  steamer. 

The  Madeira-Mamore  railway  has  been  built  to  avoid 
the  rapids  and  cataracts  of  the  river,  and  will  provide  a 
link  in  a  chain  of  2,000  miles  of  navigable  water,  which 
principally  serves  eastern  Bolivia  and  the  Brazihan  state  of 
Matto  Grosso.  The  earlier  obstacle  to  the  construction 
of  this  line,  which  has  a  terrible  history,  was  principally  the 
climate,  and  the  fever  resulting  therefrom.  Methods  of 
sanitation  similar  to  those  employed  upon  the  Panama  canal 
have  been  largely  successful  in  overcoming  the  difficulty, 
and  quinine  has  been  perhaps  as  potent  as  the  engineer. 
Porto  Velho  is  the  lower  terminus  of  the  hne,  200  miles 
in  length,  a  fluvial  port  2,000  miles  from  salt  water  and  the 
head  of  ocean  steamship  navigation  on  the  Madeira.  Along 
the  bank  of  this  Brazihan  town,  buried  in  the  jungle  in  the 
heart  of  South  America,  lie  tramp  steamers  from  New  York 
or  Liverpool,  which,  under  their  own  steam,  have  reached 
the  port,  600  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  All  around  the 
place  the  thick  curtain  of  the  Amazon  forest  descends, 
beyond  whose  edge  is  the  utterly  unknown  wilds,  whosc- 
only  tenants  are  the  shy,  harmless  httle  Indians,  who  emerge 
naked  and  timid  therefrom  ;  and,  in  still  more  inaccessible 
hiding  places,  some  cannibal  tribes,  whilst  the  howl  of  the 
jaguar  resounds  through  the  forest  at  night.  The  rapids 
which  the  railway  is  designed  to  avoid  were  the  source  of 
much  danger  and  loss,  even  to  the  large  canoes,  which 
laden  with  rubber  descended  them  from  the  rubber  forests 
of  Bolivia  and  were  frequently  wrecked.  By  means  of 
this  line  thousands  of  miles  of  smaller  streams  in  BoUvia 
are  put  in  communication  with  the  Amazon  to  Manaos. 

Immediately  above  Manaos  the  virgin  forest  closes  in,  and 


THE  AMAZON   VALLEY  115 

scarcely  any  sign  of  activity  is  apparent  over  immense  dis- 
tances, with  the  exception  of  an  occasional  hut  built  out  on 
piles,  whose  dwellers  are  rubber  gatherers,  or  wood-cutters 
who  supply  fuel  for  river  steamers  carrying  rubber  ;  and  the 
languid  or  fever-stricken  occupants  of  these  dismal  regions 
draw  what  small  wealth  they  enjoy  from  the  same  source 
— that  of  rubber.  Other  products  of  the  Amazon  valley 
which  would  yield  well  to  cultivation,  under  better  condition, 
are  cotton,  maize  and  rice,  for  which  there  is  a  demand  : 
also  coffee,  oranges,  mangoes  and  other  kinds  of  tropical 
fruits.  Whether  the  original  inhabitants  of  the  forests,  the 
Indian  tribes,  would  have  made  efficient  plantation  labourers 
is  a  matter  undecided,  but  a  great  many  of  these  tribes  are 
now  extinct,  and  the  class  inhabiting  the  towns  are  unsuited 
thereto;  whilst  the  rubber  workers,  who  regard  themselves  as 
skilled  labourers,  and  receive  good  pay,  would  be  unlikely  to 
turn  to  agriculture,  except  under  the  stress  of  necessity, 
which  however  may  occur  if  the  rubber  business  declines. 
]\Ianaos  lies  isolated,  save  for  the  great  river,  amid 
practically  primeval  forests.  No  sources  of  food  produce 
surround  it,  and  no  roads  connect  it  with  other  centres  of 
human  effort.  Thirty  years  ago  the  town  was  neglected 
and  insignificant,  for  rubber  had  little  use  or  demand  then, 
but  with  the  growing  demand  and  price  Manaos  became  a 
fine  city,  with  a  cathedral,  a  bishop's  palace,  a  great 
theatre,  electric  hght  and  electric  trams.  Agriculture  is 
neglected  :  the  advent  of  rubber,  the  rush  and  greed  for 
the  "  black  gold,"  as  it  has  been  termed,  has  brought  about 
its  decline,  and  the  small  plantations  of  cotton  and  maize 
have  gone  to  decay ;  the  forest  has  overwhelmed  the  clearings, 
and  the  workers  who  cultivated  them  have  abandoned  the 
soil  for  the  rubber  forests. 

Formerly  Brazil  contributed  go  per  cent,  of  the  world's 
supply  of  rubber,  but  this  proportion  has  greatly  decreased. 
The  rubber  crop  of  the  Amazon  valley  in  1911-12  yielded 
36,547  tons  of  rubber,  as  against  39,000  tons  for  the  year 
1909,  according  to  the  Brazilian  government  statistics. 
The  rubber  included  is  of  two  kinds,  rubber  and 
caucho.     That  of  Brazilian  origin  came  from  the  forests  of 


ii6  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

the  following  rivers  approximately  :  3,000  tons  from  the 
Solimoes  and  Javary  rivers  ;  12,000  tons  from  the  Purus  and 
Acil ;  4,800  tons  from  the  Jurua  ;  5,700  tons  from  the 
Madeira,  and  850  tons  from  the  Negro,  with  2,500  tons  from 
Iquitos.  Of  the  total  amount  23,000  tons  was  classed  as 
rubber  and  5,800  as  caucho.  The  exports  of  rubber  and 
caucho  from  Manaos  to  Liverpool  were  6,200  tons,  and 
elsewhere  to  Europe  7,875  tons,  and  to  America  9,045  tons. 
The  maximum  price  obtained  for  fine  rubber  per  pound  at 
that  time  was  5s.  2d.  In  1919  the  total  export  was  33,000 
tons.   There  are  now  numerous  plantations. 

British  capital  is  fairly  well  represented  in  the  Amazon 
valley,  the  steamship  line  from  Liverpool  being  a  British 
enterprise  and  dependent  upon  Amazon  trade,  and  the 
harbours  of  Manaos  and  Para  are  both  in  the  hands  of 
British  companies.  Port  works,  waterworks,  tramways,  and 
electric  lights  are  largely  owned  by  British  shareholders  in 
these  towns,  matters  whose  prosperity  depends  upon  rubber. 
The  capital  of  the  Para  electric  tramways  company  is 
£780,000.  The  traffic  revenue  in  191 1  amounted  to  nearly 
£200,000,  and  that  from  electric  lighting  nearly  £90,000  ; 
and  a  profit  of  nearly  £116,000  was  paid.  Foreign  business 
in  Para  is  well  divided  internationally.  Luxurious  motor-cars 
are  imported  from  France  and  the  United  States,  and 
although  the  roads  in  Para  and  IManaos  are  unpaved,  the 
cars  are  considerably  used,  especially  by  doctors  and  others. 
Cotton  goods  come  from  Manchester,  and  Britain  also  pre- 
dominates in  exports  of  alcohoHc  drinks,  as  gin,  whiskey,  and 
brandy.  Only  the  best  quality  of  champagne  is  appreciated, 
which  comes  from  France,  and  wine  from  Portugal,  The 
Latin  American  people  are  largely  addicted  to  alcoholic  drinks 
of  this  character,  especially  liqueurs  and  high  class  produc- 
tions generally  from  Europe.  A  good  deal  of  falsification 
takes  place,  especially  in  the  re-using  of  bottles  and  labels 
of  well-known  brands.  Germany  dominates  the  market 
of  Para  for  laces,  cloth,  embroidery  cotton,  articles  of  tin 
and  aluminium,  toys,  lamps,  mirrors,  pencils,  paper,  and 
also  supplies  musical  instruments  and  articles  of  clothing. 
In  the  finer  sorts  of  clothing  France  occupies  the  first  place. 


THE  AMAZON  VALLEY  117 

as  also  with  drugs  and  perfumes.  The  number  of  German 
commercial  travellers  generally  preponderates  over  those  of 
any  other  country.  The  method  of  doing  business  by  com- 
mercial traveller  is  stated  to  be  the  better  way  in  Brazil, 
for  correspondence  does  not  always  receive  attention,  and 
full  security  must  be  established. 

With  the  increase  of  industry,  motor-boats  may  be  ex- 
pected to  multiply  on  the  Amazon  in  the  future.  In  the 
Brazilian  state  of  Amazonas  alone  there  are  45,000  miles  of 
navigable  water  at  the  disposal  of  the  inhabitants,  which 
offer  means  of  communication  in  regions  through  which 
railways  possibly  will  never  penetrate.  But  one  of  the 
requisites  to  the  progress  of  the  Amazon  valley  in  the  future 
will  be  that  of  labour,  There  is  a  considerable  supply  of 
cheap  and  good  labour  in  the  West  Indian  Islands,  but  the 
negroes  of  the  British  possessions  would,  in  view  of  the 
disclosures  of  the  Putumayo,  where  they  were  imported  and 
forced  to  work  as  slave  drivers  and  made  professional 
fioggers  and  murderers  of  Indians,  have  to  enter  the  valley 
under  supervision.  A  railway  from  British  Guiana  along 
the  Rio  Branco,  which,  coming  from  the  north  enters  tlie 
Rio  Negro  above  Manaos,  has  been  projected,  and  would 
form  a  means  of  entry  for  such  labour. 

In  regard  to  native  labour  in  the  Amazon  valley,  a  Bill 
has  been  brought  forward  in  Brazil  by  the  Minister  of  Agri- 
culture for  the  betterment  of  the  condition  of  the  Indians, 
the  republic  being  anxious,  in  view  of  recent  occurrences 
in  the  Amazon  valley,  to  justify  before  the  world  its  attitude 
towards  the  Indian  citizens.  As  an  ethnic  element  the 
Indian  is  vastly  superior  to  the  negro,  and  it  is  an  insane 
policy  to  permit  the  deterioration  of  these  valuable  races. 
The  history  of  the  Indians  in  Brazil  is  a  curious  one. 
As  early  as  1537  Paul  III.  declared  "  that  they  were  men 
like  others,"  and  therefore  free,  while  regulations  were 
drawn  up  in  1548  and  1570,  which,  though  somewhat 
contradictory  to  each  other,  yet  made  for  the  liberty  of  the 
Indian.  Later  on,  however,  the  Pope,  alarmed  at  the 
atrocities  which  had  occurred  in  Mexico  and  Peru,  "  sanc- 
tioned slavery  as  a  means  of  avoiding  these  horrors."     In 


Ii8  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

1639  Pope  Urban  VIII.  excommunicated  the  captors  and 
vendors  of  the  Indians,  but  later  the  Portuguese  Govern- 
ment allowed  the  establishment  of  slavery,  Brazilian  legisla- 
tion dealing  with  the  Indians  dates  from  the  Royal  mandates 
of  Dom  John  VI.,  which  permitted  slavery.  In  1831  the 
orders  of  Dom  John  were  repealed,  and  the  Indians  considered 
as  orphans  in  the  eyes  of  the  law,  and  in  1883  the  Judge 
whose  business  it  was  to  look  after  orphans  and  their  property 
was  instructed  to  protect  the  Indians.  This  decree  was 
confirmed  in  1842,  and  the  standing  of  Indians  in  Brazil  has 
remained  the  same  down  to  the  present  day.  The  first  step 
which  would  be  taken  under  the  Bill,  if  it  becomes  law, 
would  be  the  recognition  of  all  Indians  bom  on  Brazilian  soil 
as  Brazilian  citizens.  Furthermore,  they  would  be  classified, 
registered,  provided  with  a  special  penal  code,  and  with  safe- 
guards for  such  tribes  as  are  not  yet  sufficiently  civilised  to 
look  after  themselves  completely  as  real  citizens.  Probably 
the  general  lines  of  the  Bill  would  strengthen  the  hands  of 
the  service  for  the  protection  of  the  Indians,  whose  efforts 
so  far  have  been  considerably  handicapped  by  the  legal 
status  of  those  with  whom  they  have  to  deal.  In  Peru  and 
other  countries  upon  the  Amazon  valley  the  forest  Indians 
practically  have  no  rights,  and  have  been  hunted  and 
enslaved  like  animals,  without  redress  from  the  petty  authori- 
ties, who  indeed  have  countenanced  or  entered  into  these 
operations,  known  as  correrias. 

In  all  probability  the  exploitation  of  the  Indian  would 
never  have  grown  to  being  if  the  fine  work  of  the  old  Jesuit 
and  Franciscan  friars  in  Brazil  and  Peru  had  been  allowed 
to  flourish.  One  of  the  greatest  names  associated  with  the 
Amazon  is  that  of  the  famous  Padre  Samuel  Fritz,  a  Bohemian 
by  birth,  who  passed  the  larger  part  of  his  life  in  the  service 
of  Spain,  in  Peru  as  a  Jesuit  missionary,  working  from  1686 
to  1723  among  the  Indians  of  the  Amazon  forests.  The 
Portuguese  built  forts  at  the  confluence  of  the  Rio  Negro, 
where  Manaos  now  stands,  in  order  to  assert  their  sovereignty, 
as  against  the  Spaniards,  over  that  part  of  the  river  ;  and 
despatched  armed  bands  up  stream,  which  destroyed  the 
Christian  missions  and  settlements  Fritz  had  founded.     The 


THE   AMAZON   VALLEY  119 

cruelties  practised  in  these  slave-raids,  for  such  in  effect 
they  were,  caused  the  tribes  to  flee  to  remoter  regions, 
and  a  great  diminution  of  the  population  followed,  in  the 
first  half  of  the  eighteenth  century.  It  is  only  under  a 
system  such  as  the  old  missionaries  established,  a  species 
of  organised  industry-planning  in  which  native  crafts  and 
agriculture  were  encouraged,  and  self-contained  communi- 
ties created,  that  the  valuable  Amazon  native  tribes  can  be 
conserved.  Modern  "  industrialisation  "  in  any  form,  where 
they  are  exploited  under  a  system  of  dividend-earning,  will 
only  ruin  and  destroy  them.* 

The  uncivilised  tribes  of  the  Peruvian  Amazon  region 
number  in  the  aggregate  approximately  150,000  to  300,000 
souls,  but  due  to  their  widely  separated  conditions  any  exact 
calculation  is  impossible.  Often  there  is  little  distinction 
between  these  tribes,  except  that  of  name  ;  but  some  are 
clothed,  and  others  naked,  some  who  build  houses  and  culti- 
vate the  ground,  fight  with  poisoned  arrows,  build  the  war- 
towers  for  defence  and  use  the  singular  tunday,  or  signalling 
instrument — a  species  of  native  acoustic  telegraphy ;  some 
live  in  great  community-houses,  others  in  huts.  Some  of 
the  tribes  use  bows  and  arrows,  spears,  and  the  blow-pipe, 
and  manufacture  the  deadly  poison,  which  forms  an  article 
of  commerce  among  them.  The  tribes  of  the  north  are 
those  who  fashion  the  curious  reduced  human  heads,  by  a 
secret  process.  Generally  there  is  a  want  of  cohesion  among 
them,  and  even  strife,  conditions  which  have  made  them  an 
easy  prey  to  the  depredations  of  the  white  rubber  gatherers 
and  merchants.  Bullets,  alcohol,  small-pox,  fevers,  heavy 
mortality,  and  the  correrias,  or  slave  raids,  have  worked 
havoc  upon  these  tribes. 

The  Amazon  valley  has  been  the  scene  of  some  of  the 
most  terrible  and  ruthless  crimes  ever  performed  in  the 
whole  history  of  commerce — the  Putumayo  rubber  atrocities,! 
which,  worse  than  the  occurrence  of  the  Congo,  aroused  the 

•  In  giving  evidence  before  the  Select  Committee  of  the  House  of 
Commons  to  enquire  into  the  Putumayo  occurrences,  the  author  urged  that 
tropical  regions  and  tribes  should  now  be  made  the  subject  of  scientific 
study  and  supervision. 

t  See  p.  231. 


120  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 

horror  of  the  whole  civilised  world.  The  infamy  of  these 
acts  does  not  belong  to  Brazil ;  they  were  earned  out  by 
Peruvians  and  Colombians  upon  the  Putumayo  river ;  a 
region  whose  ownership  was  under  dispute  between  Peru 
and  Colombia.  The  Putumayo  river  rises  near  Pasto  in 
the  Andes  of  Colombia,  and  traverses  a  vast  region 
which  forms  one  of  the  least-known  areas  of  the  earth's 
surface.  This  river  is  nearly  i,ooo  miles  long,  and 
enters  the  main  stream  of  the  Amazon  in  Brazil,  The 
river  crosses  the  equator  in  its  upper  portion.  Like 
most  of  the  Amazon  tributaries,  the  Putumayo  and  its 
two  affluents  are  navigable  throughout  the  greater  part 
of  their  courses,  giving  access  by  water  up  to  the  base  of  the 
Andes,  and  the  rubber  traffic  is  carried  out  by  means  of 
steam  launches  and  canoes.  The  region  is  a  considerable 
distance  west  of  Iquitos  ;  nearly  a  thousand  miles  by  water  ; 
the  small,  intermittent  river  steamers  of  the  rubber  company 
occupying  two  weeks  in  the  journey  ;  and  a  part  of  the 
course  lies  through  Brazilian  v^^aterway.  A  more  direct 
route  is  effected  by  making  a  portage  from  the  Putumayo 
to  the  Napo  river,  which  enters  the  Amazon  about  fifty 
miles  below  Iquitos. 

The  native  people  inhabiting  the  region  are  mainly  the 
Huitotos,  with  other  tribes  of  more  or  less  similar  character, 
but  with  different  names.  These  people,  although  known 
as  infieles  and  salvages,  that  is,  "  un-faithed  "  and  "  savage  " 
cannot  be  described  as  savages  in  the  ordinary  sense  of  the 
term.  They  have  nothing  in  common  with  the  bloody 
savages  of  Africa  and  other  parts  of  the  world  :  but  are 
docile,  affectionate,  and  devoted  to  their  women  and  children. 
Their  weapons  are  not  adapted  for  taking  hfe  so  much  as  for 
hunting.  On  the  Putumayo  the  Indians  have  been  reduced, 
it  is  calculated,  from  40,000  or  50,000  to  less  than  10,000, 
partly  by  abuse  and  massacre  :  partly  by  having  fled  to 
more  remote  districts,  away  from  their  persecutors  and  the 
rubber  "industry." 

The  Indians  in  the  Peruvian  Montana  are  not  all  pacific 
or  docile ;  and  villages  which  were  established  in  earlier 
times  bj'^  the  Spaniards,  with   buildings,  plantations,    and 


THE  AMAZON  VALLEY  121 

industries,  have  been  destroyed  by  attacks  of  savages, 
and  their  ruins  still  remain.  Probably  these  attacks  were 
in  the  nature  of  reprisals.  In  some  districts  the  danger  from 
savages  prevents  settlement,  and  the  blow-pipe  and  the 
spear  greet  the  traveller  who  ventures  there  incautiously. 
Tales  of  savagery  have  been  told  in  which  the  white  man 
has  been  the  sufferer  ;  and  there  has  always  existed  an 
animus  against  certain  tribes  of  Indians. 

The  difficulties  of  Peru  in  the  governance  and  develop- 
ment of  its  portion  of  the  Amazon  valley,  known  as 
the  Oriente  or  Montana,  are  considerable.  The  physical 
difficulties  against  what  has  been  termed  the  conquest  of 
the  Montana  are  such  as  it  is  impossible  for  the  European 
to  picture.  Nature  resists  at  every  step.  Hunger,  thirst, 
fever,  fatigue  and  death  await  the  explorer  in  some  cases 
in  these  profound  forests,  Peru  has  sent  out  many  ex- 
peditions and  the  Lima  Geographical  Society  has  done 
valuable  work.  The  possession  of  the  Montana  is  of  in- 
calculable value  to  Peru,  and  is  a  region  any  nation  might 
covet.  The  Peruvians  are  alive  to  its  value  and  possibilities, 
but  they  are  poor.  A  government  such  as  that  at  Lima 
might  be  well-intentioned,  but  distances  are  vast  and  with  few 
means  of  communication,  and  distant  officials  are  corrupt. 
The  educated  Peruvians  of  the  coast  region  cannot  be 
entirely  censured  for  barbarities  in  the  forests,  which  are 
cut  ofi  by  the  lofty  plateaux  and  snowy  summits  of  the 
Andes  from  the  temperate  lowlands  where  the  European 
civilisation  of  the  Pacific  littoral  flourishes. 

The  journey  across  the  South  American  continent  by 
traversing  the  Andes  and  descending  the  Amazon  may  be 
accomplished  by  the  traveller  who  is  prepared  to  endure 
hardships  and  delays  and  a  certain  amount  of  risk.  It  is 
nevertheless  a  journey  of  striking  interest, taking  the  traveller 
from  the  shores  of  the  world's  largest  ocean,  across  one  of  the 
greatest  mountain  ranges  on  the  earth  to  the  headwaters 
of  the  mightiest  river  upon  the  globe.  The  most  difhcult 
part  of  the  journey  lies  in  Peru.  The  Andes  may  be  crossed 
at  one  of  several  points  ;  whether  by  mule  road  from  the 
coast  ports  which  give  access  to  Huaraz  or  Cajamarca,  or 


122  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

whether  by  the  railway  from  Callao  and  Lima  to  Oroya. 
From  these  points,  descending  the  eastern  slopes  of  the 
Cordillera,  the  roads  reach  the  head  of  navigation  by  canoe— 
the  singular  Indian  dug-out — or  by  raft,  upon  one  or  other  of 
the  numerous  streams  which  rise  in  Peruvian  territory. 
In  such  small  craft  the  head  of  steam  navigation  is  reached, 
on  the  Huallaga  or  the  Ucayali  or  other  rivers,  and  the  canoe 
exchanged  for  a  small  two-decked  steam-launch,  which  may 
ply  wherever  the  waterway  has  a  least  depth  of  four  feet. 
The  voyage  is  hot,  slow  and  monotonous  in  descending  these 
upper  rivers  when  the  rapids  are  passed.  The  river  steamer 
affords  matters  of  a  more  diverse  character  than  the  canoe, 
with  Indian  and  mestizo  passengers,  men  and  women,  baggage 
of  all  kinds,  and  at  times  men  of  all  professions  and 
nationalities,  from  Englishmen  to  Brazilian,  Peruvian  and 
Japanese,  and  from  rubber  traders  to  priests.  The  trading 
operations  at  the  primitive  settlements  passed  are  of  more 
importance  financially  than  the  passengers.  These  settle- 
ments are  but  palm-huts,  with  the  primitive  menage  of  their 
native  occupiers.  Among  the  articles  may  be  seen  the  fine 
Ucayah  pottery,  with  its  intricate  geometrical  ornament — a 
trace  of  the  mysterious  culture  of  early  Peru.  Drink  and 
dancing  conclude  the  trade  or  barter,  which  includes  rubber 
transactions  and  the  purchase  of  wood  fuel  for  the  steamer. 
There  is  a  constant  alternation  of  blazing  sun  and  Winding 
rain,  but  the  effect  is  often  fine,  and  the  launch  floats  onward 
as  a  mere  speck  on  the  broad  placid  bosom  of  the  mighty 
stream. 

The  length  of  navigable  waterways  of  the  Amazon  in  Peru 
is  estimated  as  of  422  miles  for  steamers  drawing  twenty 
feet  of  water,  5,400  miles  for  steamers  drawing  four  feet 
to  eight  feet,  and  1,880  miles  for  boats  of  two  to  four  feet 
draught.  The  Marafion  river  is  navigable  for  484  miles  ;  the 
Ucayali  868  miles,  the  Purus  955  miles,  and  there  are  others 
similarly  serviceable.  These  shrink  somewhat  in  the  dry 
season  when  the  water  is  low,  leaving  about  a  quarter  of  the 
mileage  navigable,  except  in  the  case  of  the  main  channels. 
At  high  water  period,  and  including  craft  of  all  kinds  down 
to  rafts  and  canoes,  the  waterways  of  Peru  are  estimated 


THE  AMAZON   VALLEY  123 

at  a  total  length  of  20,000  miles — traversing  the  Mon- 
tana in  all  directions.  Some  of  these  rivers  are,  how- 
ever, in  disputed  territory.  In  Brazil  the  navigable 
mileage  is  correspondingly  greater,  and  the  neighbouring 
republics  in  some  cases  enjoy  means  of  communication  in 
this  fluvial  system,  as  described  in  their  places. 

The  Government  of  Peru  have  striven  to  maintain  a 
mule  road,  through  the  region  of  the  Montana  to  Puerto 
Bermudez  on  the  Pachitea  river,  the  head  of  steam-launch 
navigation ;  from  Oroya,  on  the  Oroya  railway,  which  crosses 
the  Andes  from  Callao.  In  places  the  trail  is  cut  in  preci- 
pitous mountain  slopes  ;  in  others  the  heavy  rains  convert 
it  into  a  quagmire  almost  impossible  for  the  mules ;  and 
the  frail  bridges  over  often  swollen  streams  add  to  the  risks 
of  the  journey.  A  railway  line  is  now  under  construction  to 
replace  this  road.  The  change  of  climate  from  the  snowy  up- 
lands of  the  Andes  to  the  tropical  forests  upon  this  route  is 
very  marked.  Halting  places  known  as  Tambos  are  kept  up, 
which,  however,  are  little  more  than  primitive  huts,  and 
little  in  the  way  of  clearing  or  cultivation  has  been  done, 
whereby  food  supplies  for  man  and  beast  might  be  rendered 
more  plentiful.  The  region  is,  however,  an  attractive  one 
for  the  naturalist.  A  system  of  wireless  telegraphy  has 
been  established  for  some  years  over  this  zone  of  territory, 
with  a  station  at  Iquitos  :  and  more  recently  a  station  has 
been  erected  at  Lima  on  the  Pacific  coast,  and  wireless 
communication  is  successfully  carried  on  with  Iquitos,  the 
distance  being  650  miles.  Considering  that  the  enormous 
bulk  of  the  Andes  intervenes  between  the  two  places,  rising 
to  18,000  feet  or  more,  this  must  be  regarded  as  a  notable 
achievement.  Wireless  stations  are  also  to  be  erected  by 
the  Bolivian  government  along  the  frontiers  of  Bolivia  with 
Paraguay,  Brazil  and  Peru,  and  thus  communication  will 
be  maintained  through  the  Amazon  valley. 

The  possibilities  for  the  improvement  of  river  navigation, 
and  the  connecting  of  one  fluvial  system  with  another  in  the 
valleys  of  the  Amazon  and  La  Plata  and  others,  are  of  marked 
interest.  It  is  a  noteworthy  condition  of  some  of  these 
rivers  that  the  water-parting  between  their  sources  is  very 


124  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH  AMERICA 

low,  consisting  in  a  short,  flat  "  isthmus,"  and  short  lines  of 
railway,  or  in  some  cases  a  canal  would  complete  the  circle 
of  communication  between  fluvial  systems  whose  outfalls 
are  thousands  of  miles  apart.  In  Peru,  Colombia,  and  Bolivia, 
there  are  numerous  "  varaderos  "  of  this  nature,  as  the  port- 
ages are  termed,  connecting  the  headwaters  of  the  Ucayali 
and  the  Madre  de  Dios  rivers,  and  across  the  varaderos 
the  rubber  gatherers  carry  their  canoes.  One  of  the  diffi- 
culties of  transport  and  the  handling  of  goods  by  Amazon 
steamers  is  due  to  the  great  rise  and  fall  in  the  river  level  be- 
tween flood  times.  At  Manaos  this  difficulty  is  very  marked 
for  six  months  in  the  year,  but  floating  piers  are  being  con- 
structed to  overcome  the  condition  ;  the  work  being  carried 
out  with  the  assistance  of  British  capital. 

In  this  comparatively  little  known  and  wide  reaching 
region  of  the  Amazon  valley,  Brazil  and  the  adjoining  re- 
publics possess  national  properties  whose  future  value  is 
incalculable,  but  which  carry  with  them  difficult  problems 
and  grave  responsibilities.  It  is  the  most  extensive  river 
region  in  the  world,  and  will  be  capable  of  infinite  resources 
when  exploited  by  a  people  who  shall  know  how  to  turn  its 
value  to  the  good  of  the  country  and  to  the  world. 


REPUBLICS  OF  RIVER  PLATE— ARGENTINA  125 


CHAPTER  IV 

THE  REPUBLICS  OF  THE  RIVER  PLATE- 
ARGENTINA 

The  name  of  Argentina  bears  with  it  a  vision  of  illimitable 
prairies  :  the  vast  Pampas,  inhabited  by  endless  herds  of 
kine  :  of  dusty  wildernesses  rendered  into  fertile  wheat 
fields  and  vineyards  by  irrigating  streams  of  water  :  great 
nielancholy  plains  whereon  man  and  beast  strive  to  increase 
and  multiply,  and  where  they  have  increased  in  a  way 
unprecedented  in  the  history  of  pastoral  lands  before — an 
increase  which  has  been  translated  into  terms  of  rich  cities, 
Math  wide  boulevards  and  parks,  lined  with  the  palaces  of 
the  newly-rich,  the  plutocrats  of  a  new  American  nation  of 
a  type  unknown  elsewhere,  its  women  flashing  with  jewels 
and  fine  clothes,  its  men  ambitious  to  excel  in  their  count- 
ing-houses ;  its  working  class  poor,  picturesque  and  hard- 
working. These  people,  and  the  great  herds  of  beasts  and 
fields  of  wheat,  are  not  originally  indigenous,  but  one  and 
all  are  exotics,  whose  forbears  and  genus  were  first  poured 
forth  from  Europe. 

The  great  estuary  of  La  Plata  must  be  regarded  as  the 
commercial  and  maritime  navel  of  South  America.  Towards 
this  great  inlet  swarms  of  immigrants  of  the  Latin  race  from 
the  Old  World  have  taken  their  way,  and  from  it  issues  great 
store  of  food  products  of  meat  and  corn,  as  if  in  the  nature 
of  compensation  and  return  freight  for  the  human  cargo 
brought  from  Europe.  The  republic  of  Argentina,  and  to  a 
much  lesser  extent  Uruguay  and  Paraguay,  together  with 
a  portion  of  Brazil,  have  as  their  physical  basis  the  wide- 
spreading  territory  of  the  great  pampas  ;  the  alluvial  food- 
producing  plains  which  are  in  some  respects  the  principal 


126  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

and  most  valuable  topographical  and  economic  feature  of 
South  America  ;  traversed  by  the  great  rivers  which  have 
their  outlet  in  the  estuary  of  the  River  Plate. 

The  vast  fluvial  system  of  the  River  Plate,  comprising  the 
Uruguay,  Parana  and  Paraguay  rivers  and  their  affluents,  is 
much  less  extensive  as  regards  length  of  navigable  waterway 
than  the  Amazon,  but  more  important  in  other  respects. 
The  Parana  is  navigable  for  vessels  of  twelve  feet  draught  as 
far  as  the  city  of  Parana,  300  miles  from  Buenos  Ayres  ;  and 
to  Rosario,  185  miles  from  Buenos  Ayres,  for  vessels  of 
fifteen  feet  draught.  Above  Parana  the  river  is  navigable 
for  vessels  drawing  ten  feet  of  water  as  far  as  Asuncion,  the 
capital  of  Paraguay,  970  miles  above  Buenos  Ayres  ;  the 
affluent  upon  which  that  city  is  situated  being  the  Paraguay 
river,  intersecting  the  republic  of  that  name.  The  Parana 
and  its  affluents  drain  an  enormous  area  of  territory,  of 
very  diversified  characteristics,  but  the  system  is  obstructed 
in  its  upper  portions  by  rapids  and  cascades,  although  great 
stretches  of  water  are  navigable  for  smaller  crafts.  The 
Uruguay  river  is  navigable  for  vessels  drawing  fourteen 
feet  of  water  as  far  as  Paysandu  in  Uruguay,  about  200  miles 
from  Buenos  Ayres,  and  thence  to  Salto,  100  miles  beyond. 

The  two  great  seaports  and  commercial  centres  of  the  River 
Plate  are  Buenos  Ayres  and  Montevideo,  the  capitals  respec- 
tively of  the  republics  of  Argentina  and  Uruguay  ;  also 
the  port  of  La  Plata.  These  two  important  maritime 
centres  lie,  the  first  upon  the  southern,  and  the  second  upon 
the  northern  side  of  the  great  estuary,  150  miles  apart,  and 
the  port  of  La  Plata  lies  slightly  to  the  east  of  Buenos  Ayres. 
These  places  are  not  by  nature  first  class  seaports  or  harbours, 
such  as  is  Rio  de  Janeiro,  and  heavy  outlay  in  dredging  and 
docks  has  been  necessary  to  ensure  facilities  of  access  and 
harbourage  for  Buenos  Ayres. 

Argentina,  above  all  the  Latin  American  nations,  has 
forced  itself  upon  the  notice  of  the  world  by  reason  of  its 
rapid  material  growth.  The  country  has  established  itself 
as  the  representative  of  a  new  type  ;  and  may  be  regarded 
as  a  vigorous  development  of  the  Latin  race.  The  condition 
has  arisen  in  the  main  from  reasons  of  soil  and  cUmate. 


REPUBLICS  OF  RIVER  PLATE— ARGENTINA     127 

The  great  pampas,  or  prairies,  grassy  and  treeless,  covered 
with  alluvial  soil  of  a  fertile  nature,  almost  level,  extend 
from  the  Atlantic  towards  the  Andes  upwards  in  a  gentle 
slope  :  and  these  plains  are  the  basis  of  the  important  cattle 
and  wheat  industries,  which  have  made  Argentina  a  reservoir 
of  food  supply  for  export  and  have  created  for  it  enormous 
wealth.  Argentina,  first  in  many  respects,  stands  second 
in  area  and  population  among  the  South  American  states, 
coming  next  to  Brazil.  It  occupies  the  greater  area  of  the 
southern  part  of  the  continent,  covering  more  than  1,000,000 
square  miles  of  teritory.  From  Tierra  del  Fuego  in  the  south 
to  the  BraziHan  frontier  in  the  north  the  country  has  a 
length  of  2,285  miles,  with  a  greatest  width  of  930  miles. 
This  large  expanse  of  territory  is  not  all  prairie.  A  zone 
of  mountains  and  high  tablelands  in  the  west  extends  the 
whole  length  of  the  country  bordering  upon  the  Andes, 
and  in  the  south  forms  the  desolate  steppes  of  Patagonia. 
In  the  north  lies  the  Gran  Chaco,  the  extensive  and  partly 
unexplored  region  of  plain,  forest  and  lagoon,  with  several 
elevations  of  600  to  800  feet  above  sea  level.  This  plain, 
which  is  one  of  the  marked  topographical  features  of  the 
interior  of  South  America  extends  southwardly,  between 
the  Parana  and  Uruguay  rivers,  forming  the  "  Mesopotamia  " 
of  Argentina,  terminating  in  the  province  of  Entre  Rios.  The 
most  valuable  part  of  Argentina  is  the  pampas,  the  enormous 
wheat-growing  and  cattle-grazing  regions.  The  variations 
of  climate  are  wide  throughout  the  country,  but  the  mean 
annual  temperature  of  the  pampas  region  and  Buenos 
Ayres,  situated  upon  its  eastern  edge,  and  of  the  coast  is 
about  63°,  with  a  maximum  and  minimum  of  104°  and  32° 
respectively.  There  is  an  annual  rainfall  of  thirty-four 
inches,  and  an  absence  of  snow.  The  climate  of  the  pampas 
must  be  considered  healthy  and  temperate,  but  it  is  subject 
to  cold  storms  from  the  south  and  west  which  at  times  cause 
great  loss  to  the  flocks  and  herds.  The  dust  storms  are  an 
unpleasing  feature  of  the  region.  The  extreme  north  of 
Argentina  lies  in  the  torrid  zone,  and  in  the  extreme  south 
snow  falls  every  month.  In  the  Andean  region  hot  dry 
winds  from  the  north-west  blow  strongly,  and  with  the  cold 


128  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH  AMERICA 

south  winds  which  at  times  suddenly  follow  are  a  source  of 
great  discomfort  and  even  suffering.  Like  all  South 
American  countries,  marked  extremes  of  topography  and 
climate  are  encountered  in  Argentina. 

The  composition  racially  of  the  people  of  Argentina  is  not 
generally  understood  abroad.  The  Argentinos,  as  they  are 
termed,  are  by  no  means  exclusively  made  up  of  the  Spanish 
race,  and  a  very  small  portion  represents  the  indigenous 
or  Indian  element.  The  population  of  the  republic,  which 
in  1810  was  500,000  now  numbers  nearly  8,000,000.  In  the 
half-century  from  1857  ^o  19^7  nearly  1,750,000  Italian  im- 
migrants entered  the  country,  as  against  670,000  Spaniards. 
Of  British  arrivals  there  were  in  that  period  only  40,000, 
of  Germans  26,000,  of  Swiss  25,000  and  of  Belgians  20,000. 
The  total  immigration  from  1857  to  1908  was  4,250,000 
people,  nearly  1,750,000  of  whom  left  the  country  again. 
It  is  estimated  that  there  are  only  10,000  Indians  in 
Argentina,  principally  in  the  remote  parts,  and  less  than 
1,000  negroes.  The  Argentinos  are  therefore  a  mixed 
European  race,  with  the  Italian  element  predominating  and 
the  Spanish  secondary.  A  great  number  of  the  Italian 
and  Spanish  labourers  return  home  after  the  wheat  harvest 
with  their  earnings,  and  others  leave  the  country  due  to  the 
high  cost  of  living,  the  difficulty  of  obtaining  land  and 
other  causes:  and  thus  immigration  is  a  fluctuating  quan- 
tity, which  is  not  advantageous.  In  1920  the  number  of 
immigrants  was  188,688,  and  of  emigrants  148,907. 

The  census  in  Argentina  has  not  afforded  exact  data 
regarding  the  population.  It  is  a  remarkable  condition 
that  the  census  of  1908  gave  careful  figures  of  the  numbers 
of  domestic  animals  and  birds  in  the  country,  and  even  of 
their  increase  and  sex,  but  comparatively  meagre  particulars 
concerning  the  human  population.  The  number  of  oxen, 
horses,  pigs  and  asses,  pigeons  and  poultry,  was  carefully 
calculated,  but  statistics  concerning  the  population  outside 
Buenos  Ayres  were  either  not  obtainable  or  were  per- 
functorily compiled.  Fear  of  taxation  and  mihtary  service 
doubtless  caused  a  portion  of  the  population  in  outlying 
regions  to  evade  the  census  takers,  and  added  to  this  was 


REPUBLICS  OF  RIVER  PLATE— ARGENTINA  129 


the  difficulty  of  reaching  the  more  remote  territories  ; 
and  the  official  enumeration,  in  round  numbers,  of  5,800,000 
souls,  of  which  half  were  returned  for  the  city  and  province 
of  Buenos  Ayres,  was  probably  an  under-statement.  The 
total  population  of  the  republic  reaches,  by  the  last  official 
estimate  of  1919,  7,890,000. 

The  republic  is  divided  poHtically  into  fourteen  provinces 
and  ten  territories,  whose  areas  in  square  miles  and  popula- 
tions, according  to  this  estimate,  are: — 


Provinces 

Area 

Population 

Federal  Capital 

72 

1,650,000 

Buenos  Ayres 

117,778 

2,279,500 

Santa  Fe 

50,916 

983,800 

Entre  Rios 

28,784 

461,600 

Corrientes 

3^.580 

364,800 

Cordoba 

62,160 

787,700 

San  Luis 

28,535 

128,100 

Santiago  del  Estero   . . 

39,764 

293,500 

Mendoza 

56,500 

307,600 

San  Juan 

33.710 

129,000 

Rioj  a    .  . 

34.540 

84,500 

Catamarca 

47.530 

107,200 

Tucuman 

8,920 

351,000 

Salta                 

62,180 

150,800 

Jujuy               

18,970 

78,700 

Misiones  Territory 

11,280 

60,400 

Formosa 

41,400 

21,300 

Chaco             ,, 

52.740 

50,900 

Pampa 

56,320 

119,800 

Neuquen 

42,340 

32.500 

Rio  Negro     „ 

75,920 

46,600 

Chubut 

93,420 

27,700 

Santa  Cruz    ,, 

109,140 

11,400 

Tierra  del  Fuego  Territory  . . 

8,300 

2,500 

Los  Andes                     ,, 

21,990 

2,600 

The  constitution  of  Argentina  embodies  a  government 
of  executive,  legislative,  and  judiciary  powers.  The  legislative 
power  is  vested  in  a  national  congress  of  two  chambers,  the 
senate  and  chamber  of  deputies.  The  first  is  composed  of 
thirty  members,  two  from  each  province,  elected  by  the  pro- 
vincial legislatures,  and  the  second  of  120  members,  elected 
by  the  system  of  proportional  representation,  by  direct  vote, 
at  the  rate  of  one  deputy  for  each  33,000  inhabitants.  The 
chamber  of  deputies  controls  the  initiation  of  money  bills 
and  matters  relating  to  the  enforced  military  service.     The 

I 


130  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

executive  power  is  exercised  by  the  president,  elected  by  pre- 
sidential directors  from  each  province  chosen  by  direct 
popular  vote,  the  vice-president  being  separately  voted  for ; 
the  system  in  this  connection  being  analogous  to  that  in  the 
United  States.  The  president  exercises  a  veto  power,  over- 
ruled, however,  by  a  two-thirds  vote,  and  he,  under  advice 
of  the  senate,  appoints  the  judges,  diplomatic  agents  and 
governors  of  territories.  The  judiciary  comprise  a  supreme 
federal  court  of  five  judges,  court  of  appeal  and  attorney- 
general.  The  proceedings  are  under  the  antiquated  Spanish 
system  and  are  characterised  as  greatly  defective.  The  pro- 
vincial governments  have  their  own  constitution,  each  pro- 
vince elects  its  governor  and  functionaries  of  all  classes,  and 
has  its  own  judicial  and  tax-making  systems.  The  territories 
are  under  the  direct  control  of  the  national  government. 
Argentina  is  a  federal  as  opposed  to  a  centralised  republic. 

The  blending  of  the  various  races  which  constitute  the 
Argentine  people  have  produced  a  distinct  type,  a  new 
nationality,  with  a  spirit  of  patriotism  acutely  marked  ; 
and  in  some  respects  exaggerated.  The  Argentinos  are  not 
merely  Spaniards  or  Italians  transplanted  to  the  new  world, 
but  a  people  whose  Americanism  and  sense  of  national 
pride  is  as  great  as  that  of  the  northern  Americans  of  the 
United  States.  They  are,  as  regards  their  upper  classes, 
an  active  and  intelligent  race,  and  their  women  have  the 
attractive  traits  and  appearance  of  the  Spanish  American 
women,  but  with  shades  of  character  differing  from  the 
people  of  Mexico  and  Peru,  or  the  neighbouring  republics, 
due  to  the  greater  admixture  of  race.  Like  all  Latin  Ameri- 
can women  of  the  upper  class,  the  ladies  of  Argentina  are 
vivacious  and  pleasure  loving,  yet  with  the  qualities  of 
excellent  wives  and  mothers. 

One  of  the  gravest  social  conditions  in  the  republic  is  the 
lax  and  corrupt  administration  of  justice  in  the  courts, 
especially  in  the  more  distant  parts  of  the  country.  Homi- 
cide frequently  goes  unpunished.  The  laws  are  good  but 
insufficiently  enforced,  and  property  appears  to  be  more  highly 
considered  than  humanity.  Argentina  possesses  certain  laws 
which  are  new  to  European  sociology.     These  include  the 


REPUBLICS  OF  RIVER  PLATE— ARGENTINA  131 

compulsory  subdivision  of  property  among  heirs,  and  this 
may  be  taken  as  an  earnest  of  the  desire  of  the  government 
to  prevent  the  accumulation  of  land  in  single  hands.  A 
contract  for  tenancy  moreover  cannot  exceed  a  period  of 
ten  years,  and  a  similar  law  affects  mortgage  rights.  Aliens 
and  foreigners  have,  theoretically,  equal  rights  as  regards 
property-holding  or  disposal.  The  law  requires  a  father  to 
leave  his  children  four-fifths  of  his  possessions,  or  his  wife, 
if  childless,  half,  whilst  an  unmarried  son  must  give  his 
parents  two-thirds  of  his  property.  As  regards  state 
military  service  all  citizens  are  subject,  a  percentage,  fixed 
by  the  budget,  of  the  young  men  of  the  republic  being  called 
upon  after  their  twentieth  year  to  serve,  the  selection  being 
by  ballot,  for  a  period  of  one  year  in  the  army  and  two  in 
the  navy. 

In  comparison  with  the  other  Latin  American  republics 
the  people  of  Argentina  have  reached  a  higher  standard 
of  education,  although  compared  with  more  advanced 
nations  the  illiterate  element,  which  reaches  over  50  per 
cent,  of  the  population,  is  high.  Primary  education  is  free, 
secular,  and  compulsory,  but  the  secular  condition  has  been 
strongly  opposed  by  the  Church.  Secondary  instruction 
is  also  free,  but  not  compulsory,  and  is  under  the  control  of  the 
national  government,  which  maintains  colleges  and  normal 
schools  in  all  the  principal  towns.  There  are  several 
national  and  provincial  universities  for  higher  education, 
including  faculties  of  law,  engineering,  and  medicine.  In 
regard  to  religion,  the  state  controls  all  ecclesiastical 
appointments  and  the  relation  of  the  Church  with  the  Holy 
See  ;  and  founds  or  subsidises  places  of  worship.  The  con- 
stitution recognises  the  Roman  Catholic  religion,  but 
tolerates  all  others,  and  about  99  per  cent,  of  the  Argentine 
population  are  Roman  Catholics.  The  Jewish  colony 
numbers  about  30,000,  principally  of  Russian  nationality. 

In  addition  to  those  schools  in  which  the  usual  subjects 
of  education  are  taught,  schools  are  being  established  all 
over  the  country  for  instruction  in  special  industries.  There 
are  schools  for  agriculture  and  stock-raising  in  Cordoba, 
Mcndoza,  Tucuman,  etc. ;   a  special  school  for  the  study  of 


132  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

wine-growing  in  San  Juan  ;  and  veterinary  colleges  are 
being  established  in  various  provinces.  There  is  also  an 
industrial  school  in  which  certain  trades  are  taught  in  Buenos 
Ayres,  and  a  similar  institution  in  Rosario  ;  an  academy 
of  fine  arts,  which  has  recently  been  the  subject  of  consider- 
able controversy,  and  two  institutions  for  the  teaching  of 
deaf  mutes.  One  subject  which  is  taught  to  an  incredible 
extent  is  music.  Many  of  the  music-teaching  schools, 
without  national  authority,  confer  degrees  and  diplomas 
upon  their  students,  to  replace  which  abuse  a  National 
Institute  of  Music  is  to  be  established.  The  number  of 
libraries  in  the  country  is  considerable,  and  the  national 
library  in  Buenos  Ayres  possesses  a  large  number  of  books  in 
all  languages.  At  a  Congress  of  Argentine  Libraries  held 
in  November,  igo8,  there  were  representatives  of  sixty- 
four  public  and  fifty-nine  private  libraries,  containing 
1,280,700  volumes,  with  nearly  400,000  readers.  The  only 
British  library  represented  at  that  congress  was  that  of  the 
Enghsh  Literary  Society,  which  was  founded  thirty-five 
years  ago,  and  is  the  oldest  British  institution  in  the  country. 
There  are  a  number  of  English  schools  in  Buenos  Ayres  and 
the  suburbs,  which,  although  compelled  by  law  to  give  a 
minimum  of  education  in  the  Spanish  language,  at  the  same 
time  make  English  and  English  subjects  a  prominent  part 
of  the  curriculum.  Most  of  these  schools  have  as  head- 
masters graduates  of  British  universities. 

The  universities  have  until  recently  confined  themselves 
to  the  task  of  conferring  degrees  upon  physicians,  lawyers, 
and  engineers,  in  accordance  with  the  needs  of  the  country. 
This  work  was  performed  by  the  two  important  universities 
of  Buenos  Ayres  and  Cordoba.  Each  of  these  universities 
contained  the  three  faculties  of  law,  physics,  and  engineer- 
ing, but  the  university  of  Buenos  Ayres  has  now  added  a 
further  one,  that  of  philosophy  and  letters,  whose  activities 
lie  in  the  preparation  of  teachers  for  secondary  and  normal 
schools.  Higher  education  in  Argentina  has  recently  been 
enlarged  in  its  scope,  and  a  modern  spirit  has  been  imparted 
to  it  by  the  creation  of  the  new  university  at  La  Plata,  also 
supported  by  the  national  government.     To  the  university 


REPUBLICS  OF  RIVER  PLATE— ARGENTINA  133 

of  La  Plata  belongs  the  credit  of  having  inaugurated  in 
Argentina  the  movement  for  the  exchange  of  professors 
with  Europe  and  the  United  States,  as  well  as  other  forms 
of  university  extension  work. 

According  to  the  census  of  population,  there  are  in 
Argentina  about  600,000  boys  and  girls  between  four- 
teen and  eighteen  years  of  age,  one-fifth  of  whom  are 
resident  in  the  city  of  Buenos  Ayres  alone,  and  yet  the 
statistics  of  public  education  do  not  account  for  more  than 
one-fortieth  of  this  total.  Moreover,  out  of  the  entire  number 
who  receive  secondary  education  only  about  one-fifth  secure 
its  full  benefits,  since  the  more  advanced  training  is  of  little 
use  to  those  who  leave  the  secondary  school  to  take  up 
agricultural,  commercial,  or  industrial  occupations. 

One  of  the  greatest  handicaps  to  the  creation  of  schools 
throughout  Argentina  is  the  lack  of  town  and  village  life 
in  the  rural  communities.  The  country  is  sparsely  settled, 
as  the  present  population  per  square  mile  is  less  than  six 
inhabitants.  The  land  does  not  in  general  belong  to  the 
labourer,  but  to  landlords  who  own  large  tracts  of  it.  The 
man  who  tills  the  soil  does  not  particularly  care  to  remain 
on  it,  and  consequently  there  are  no  homes  in  the  real 
meaning  of  the  word.  Children,  among  a  large  mass  of 
the  people,  are  thus  placed  at  a  great  disadvantage  from  the 
educational  point  of  view,  and  even  when  rural  communities 
are  gathered  into  villages  and  towns  the  population  is  so 
scanty  that  schools  are  very  generally  wanting.  Further- 
more, out  of  every  100  children  entering  school  only  thirty 
reach  the  third  standard,  and  less  than  two  reach  the  sixth. 
Therefore  the  benefits  of  pubhc  education  are  greatly  re- 
stricted by  the  fact  that  some  200,000  children  become 
men  and  women  without  having  spent  more  than  two  years 
at  school.  The  reasons  for  this  seem  to  be  mainly  the 
unsuitability  of  the  education  given  to  the  needs  of  the 
child.  Not  less  than  69  per  cent,  of  the  children  who  have 
attended  for  the  first  year  at  school  are,  it  is  stated, 
unfit  for  promotion,  which  evidently  shows  some  lack  of 
adjustment  of  the  school  course  to  the  capabilities  of  the  child. 
The    kindergarten    movement,   which    has  done   so  much 


134  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH  AMERICA 

elsewhere,  has  made  httle  progress  in  Argentina.  Another 
reason  for  the  failure  of  the  school  to  retain  the  child 
may  be  found  in  the  absence  of  that  kind  of  training 
useful  in  after  life.  Manual  work,  athletics,  nature  study, 
domestic  and  experimental  science  are  very  inadequately 
taught,  and  this  also  tends  to  make  the  school  less  attractive 
to  children.*  Argentina  spends  about  30,000,000  pesos  on 
primary  schools.  Out  of  this  total  the  city  of  Buenos 
Ayres  spends  13,000,000,  the  province  of  Buenos  Ayres 
8,000,000,  and  the  rest  of  the  country  the  remaining  9,000,000. 

Buenos  Ayres,  the  capital  of  the  republic,  is  situated 
115  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  estuary,  upon  a  flat,  open 
plain  extending  far  inland.  The  shore  line  of  the  estuary 
of  the  Rio  de  la  Plata  as  the  city  is  approached  presents 
a  low,  monotonous  appearance  ;  the  great  grain-elevators 
being  the  most  conspicuous  objects  as  viewed  from  the  sea. 
These  structures  are  indicative  of  one  of  the  chief  industries 
of  Argentina,  that  of  wheat-growing  on  the  pampas.  The 
elevators  are  of  the  character  familiar  to  the  North  American 
and  have  a  capacity  for  loading  as  much  as  20,000  tons  of 
grain  daily,  the  grain  of  the  small  grey  wheat  of  the  pampas. 
Other  prominent  constructions  on  the  shore  line  of  the  city 
are  the  great  slaughter-houses,  similar  to  those  of  Chicago  ; 
indicative  of  the  great  pastoral  industries  of  Argentina. 
Thousands  of  sheep,  oxen  and  swine  are  disposed  of  daily, 
under  the  system  of  scientific  butchery  employed  in  these 
establishments. 

The  water  front  of  the  city  is  clustered  with  the  poor 
dwellings  of  the  Italian  immigrants,  who  inhabit  Buenos 
Ayres  in  sordid  misery,  for  these  human  birds  of  passage 
often  cannot  or  will  not  journey  into  the  interior  where 
their  labour  is  required.  The  good  pay  offered  lasts  a 
comparatively  few  weeks,  or  possibly  months,  and  this 
condition,  in  conjunction  with  serious  abuses  to  w^hich  in 
the  interior  the  immigrants  are  subject  on  occasions,  both 
by  officials  and  employers,  acts  as  a  deterrent.  Notwith- 
standing the  desire  of  the   government  of  the  country  to 

*  From  an  article  by  the  Director  of  the  Pedagogical  Museum  of  Buenos 
Ayres,  in  The  Times. 


REPUBLICS  OF  RIVER  PLATE— ARGENTINA  135 

ensure  a  supply  of  cheap  labour,  the  economic  and  humani- 
tarian management  of  the  immigrants  leaves  much  to  be 
desired.  Nevertheless,  the  arrangements  for  receiving 
immigrants  are  of  considerable  importance,  and  are  con- 
stantly improving. 

The  importance  commercially  of  Buenos  Ay  res  is  shown 
by  the  lines  of  ocean  steamers  constantly  unloading  at  the 
docks.  The  efficiency  of  the  docks  was  only  obtained  after 
a  heavy  outlay,  due  to  topographical  conditions,  and  in  the 
last  quarter  of  a  century  nearly  £14,000,000  sterling  has 
been  spent  in  their  improvement  and  equipment.  Thus  it 
was  that  serious  difficulties  have  had  to  be  overcome  in 
order  to  render  Buenos  Ayres  an  accessible  seaport  of  the 
first  class.  La  Plata  estuary  is  thirty-four  miles  wide  at 
this  point,  but  is  so  shallow  that  only  by  means  of  constant 
dredging  in  artificial  channels  can  vessels  enter  the  docks. 
Before  the  improvements  were  effected  vessels  drawing 
fifteen  feet  of  water  were  forced  to  anchor  twelve  miles  from 
the  city,  in  the  outer  roadstead,  where  unloading  was 
effected  by  means  of  launches  and  boats,  in  connection  with 
the  long  wharves  stretching  seaward  over  the  shallows.  The 
revenues  derived  from  the  operation  of  the  modern  docks 
are  satisfactory,  yielding  an  interest  of  upwards  of  8  per 
cent,  per  annum  upon  the  cost  of  construction. 

The  city  of  Buenos  Ayres  has  overtaken  all  its  rivals 
and  become  the  foremost  city  in  Latin  America,  and  the 
second  Latin  city  in  the  world,  in  some  respects  due  to  the 
considerable  area  covered,  of  47,000  acres,  rendered  possible 
by  the  flat  site  and  unlimited  space  upon  which  it  stands. 
The  Argentine  capital  forms  one  of  the  largest  municipalities 
in  the  world,  coming  next  in  that  respect  to  London,  New 
York,  and  Marseilles.  The  development  of  the  city  has 
been  remarkable,  and  in  the  rapidity  of  its  extension  nothing 
can  be  compared  with  Buenos  Ayres  except  some  of  the 
newer  towns  of  North  America.  The  population  now  exceeds 
2,000,000,  and  the  cosmopolitan  character  of  the  inhabi- 
tants is  shewn  by  the  fact  that  almost  half  their  number 
are  foreigners,  Italians  and  Spaniards  predominating. 
The  rapid  growth  is  shewn  by  the  fact  that  in  1869  the 


136  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH  AMERICA 

population  numbered  only  178,000  ;  whilst  at  the  present 
time  the  city  contains  one-fifth  of  the  whole  population  of 
the  republic.  Notwithstanding  its  size,  the  city  is  greatly 
overcrowded,  and  more  than  one-fifth  of  the  population 
live  in  tenement  houses. 

The  ground  plan  of  Buenos  Ayres  is  that  commonly  en- 
countered in  Latin  America,  of  parallel  and  cross  streets  and 
uniformty-sized  blocks.  The  city  is  laid  out  entirely  upon 
level  ground,  and  formerly  the  older  style  of  architecture 
adopted  gave  a  somewhat  monotonous  appearance  to  the 
streets  ;  but  of  recent  3^ears  the  increase  in  wealth  and 
population  has  resulted  in  a  bolder  and  more  diverse  archi- 
tecture, with  numerous  public  squares,  handsomely  laid  out 
and  well  maintained  ;  and  of  national  edifices  of  costly 
appearance  and  great  solidity.  The  old  Spanish-colonial 
type  of  domestic  architecture  is  of  one-storey  buildings  with 
heavily  grated  windows,  grouped  as  to  interior  constructure 
around  patios,  or  enclosed  yards,  and  opening  on  to  the  street 
with  one  wide  doorway — the  style  such  as  is  encountered 
throughout  Spanish  America,  and  this  still  prevails  in  part 
in  Buenos  Ayres.  It  is  a  quaint  if  sometimes  monotonous 
style,  and  has  many  useful  attributes.  The  flat,  parapeted 
roofs,  barred  windows  and  heavy  doors,  give  a  quaint, 
almost  mediaeval  aspect  to  the  streets,  which  in  its  way  is 
not  less  pleasing  than  more  modern  styles.  This  method  of 
construction  has  been  modified  in  the  newer  buildings  of 
Buenos  Ayres.  Elegant  private  residences  and  costly  and 
elaborate  public  institutions  and  business  offices  fine  the 
principal  thoroughfares  ;  and  beyond  these  the  numerous 
country  houses  and  gardens  render  the  suburbs  attractive. 
The  dismal  quarters  of  the  poor  are,  as  always  in  the  modem 
city,  kept  to  their  special  districts  ;  a  different  system  to 
that  which  obtained  in  colonial  times  in  Latin  America, 
where  the  houses  of  the  rich  and  the  poor  were  often  much 
intermixed.  The  modern  architecture  of  Buenos  Ayres 
has  much  of  the  Italian  style  run  riot.  Ornament  has  been" 
piled  on  ornament  in  the  dwellings  of  the  rich.  The  use 
of  plaster  and  stucco  as  the  outside  covering  of  buildings, 
whilst   at  times    oftensively   ornate,  is   generally   executed 


REPUBLICS  OF  RIVER  PLATE— ARGENTINA  137 

with  skill.  The  work  has  been  done  largely  by  Italian 
workmen,  in  imitation  of  freestone,  enclosing  the  core  of 
bricks,  as  in  the  buildings  of  Rome.  The  system  is  the  result 
of  necessity  in  the  main,  for  building  stone  is  not  available 
in  the  environs  of  Buenos  Ayres,  nor  anywhere  in  the 
republic  ;  whilst  brick-earth  forms  the  underlying  material 
of  the  riverine  plain  upon  which  the  city  is  situated.  Even 
in  the  finest  public  buildings  marble  is  used  only  for  part  of 
the  fa9ade.  Whilst  many  of  the  newer  buildings  of  Buenos 
Ayres  are  suihciently  chaste  in  style  and  often  splendid  in 
appearance,  and  the  more  recent  type  of  high-class  dwelling 
an  improvement  upon  its  predecessors,  the  want  of  an 
individual  style  is  notable,  and  this  is  generally  characteristic 
of  the  architecture  of  the  modern  portions  of  all  Latin 
American  cities.  The  most  chaste  and  durable  building, 
both  as  regards  style  and  work,  is  the  Spanish  colonial  type, 
and  possibly  this  will  hold  its  own,  especially  when  these 
communities  become  less  plutocratic.  Both  chimneys  and 
gabled  roofs  are  absent  from  this  style.  The  climate  of 
Buenos  Ayres  is  a  temperate  one,  and  although  cold  at 
times,  fireplaces  are  not  used,  after  the  usual  Latin  American 
custom  of  dispensing  with  these  ;  whilst  the  rainfall  in 
many  places  is  not  sufficiently  persistent  to  necessitate  the 
sloping  roof. 

The  plazas,  or  public  squares,  alamedas  and  parks  of 
Buenos  Ayres  cover  in  the  aggregate  some  950  acres,  a 
sufficiently  generous  area.  Wide  boulevards,  electric  lighted 
and  paved  with  wood-block  or  asphalt,  bisect  the  city,  the 
principal  of  these  typical  thoroughfares  being  the  handsome, 
spacious  Avenido  de  Mayo,  completed  a  few  years  ago  at  a 
cost  of  several  millions  of  dollars,  lined  by  lofty  buildings  ; 
and  the  Calle  Florida.  Flowers,  walks  and  shade  trees  are 
plentifully  disposed  in  the  plazas,  giving  a  well-kept  and 
attractive  appearance  to  the  newer  parts  of  the  city.  The 
fine  drive  in  Palermo  Park,  and  the  Avenida  Alvear,  or 
Argentine  "  Rotten  Row,"  are  other  thoroughfares  which 
act  as  a  setting  for  the  costly  equipages,  the  Parisian  dresses 
and  the  jewels  of  Argentine  fashionable  life.  The  con- 
siderable  expenditure,    of  more   than  £6,000,000   sterling. 


138  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

made  of  recent  years  upon  water  supply  and  sanitation 
works  has  banished  the  scourges  of  cholera,  yellow  fever, 
and  bubonic  plague,  which  formerly  afflicted  Buenos  Ayres, 
and  has  created  a  healthy  city,  whose  death  rate  has  de- 
creased from  27  per  thousand  in  1887  to  18  per  thousand 
at  the  present  time,  comparing  favourably  with  other  capital 
cities.  Despite  these  improvements,  however,  street  con- 
struction, sewers  and  water-supply  are  still  inadequate, 
leaving  large  parts  of  the  city  unprovided  for,  and  subject 
to  typhoid  outbreaks.  Money  has  been  spent  in  some  cases 
upon  ornate  buildings,  which  might  have  been  diverted  to 
public  utilities :  a  condition  commonly  encountered  in 
Latin  American  towns. 

Apart  from  the  newer  thoroughfares  the  majority  of  the 
streets  of  Buenos  Ayres  are  narrow,  after  the  older  type  of 
Latin  American  towns,  and  the  electric  tramways  of  necessity 
run  in  single  lines,  returning  upon  a  parallel  street.  The 
tramway  system  is  an  extensive  and  modern  one,  electrically 
operated,  embodying  nearly  500  miles  of  line,  but  further 
means  of  urban  transit  are  requisite  due  to  the  growing 
traffic.  The  suburban  railway  service  is  a  good  one,  and 
the  building  of  suburban  homes  in  the  rural  surroundings 
for  dwellers  of  moderate  means  is  a  satisfactory  feature 
of  urban  expansion.  The  proper  housing  of  the  working 
classes,  however,  receives  far  less  attention,  and  is  entirely 
inadequate. 

The  love  of  pleasure  is  strong  in  the  Argentine  character, 
as  evidenced  by  the  full  attendances  at  horse-races,  theatres, 
and  gaming-houses,  and  the  considerable  expenditure  con- 
nected with  such  institutions.  Horse-racing  is  a  growing 
sport  all  over  Latin  America,  and  the  race-course  and  grand 
stand  form  the  centre  of  society  out  of  doors  during  the 
season.  It  may  be  regarded  as  an  advance  on  the  form  of 
sport  represented  by  the  bull-fighting.  The  Jockey  Club 
of  Buenos  Ayres  is  a  wealthy  institution,  and  more  than 
£400,000  is  provided  for  the  season's  stakes  at  times.  The 
breeding  of  blood  stock  is  very  successfully  carried  out  on 
a  large  scale,  by  a  number  of  wealthy  persons.  Gambling 
is  a  ruling  passion  with  the  Argentino  of  all  classes,  and  horse- 


REPUBLICS  OF  RIVER  PLATE— ARGENTINA  139 

racing  and  cards  form  strongly  attractive  means  of  wager- 
staking.  Horse-racing  in  the  Argentine  has  acquired  so 
much  popularity  that  meetings  are  held  almost  daily  on 
the  fine  racecourses,  at  Palermo,  Belgrano,  Lomas,  Rosario, 
and  at  other  places.  The  Jockey  Club  is  the  controlling 
body  in  Argentine  racing  circles.  Not  only  does  this  club 
use  its  influence  to  encourage  sport,  but  it  has  done  much  to 
promote  the  interests  of  horse-breeding  in  the  republic. 
Unfortunately  the  growth  of  horse-racing  has  been  attended 
with  excessive  betting.  Huge  crowds  assemble  at  all  the 
principal  race  meetings,  and  thousands  of  pounds  are 
squandered  annually  by  backers  representing  all  classes  of 
society.  Flying  exhibitions  also  offer  considerable  attraction 
to  the  sporting  people  of  Buenos  Ayres. 

During  recent  years  Association  football  has  become  so 
popular  among  the  masses  as  to  provide  a  powerful  counter- 
attraction  to  horse-racing.  Ten  years  ago  football  in  the 
Argentine  was  confined  to  British  residents,  and  the  game 
was  regarded  by  Argentinos  merely  as  a  series  of  antics  of 
the  locos  Ingleses  (mad  Englishmen).  But  since  those  days 
a  remarkable  change  has  come  about,  and  the  Rugby  game 
has  also  obtained  many  votaries. 

Rowing  has  also  become  a  favourite  pastime  amongst 
the  rising  generation  in  Buenos  Ayres  and  the  principal 
towns  on  the  banks  of  the  rivers  Plate  and  Parana.  Large 
clubs  exist  at  Buenos  Ayres,  Rosario,  Baradero,  Campana, 
San  Nicolas,  San  Pedro,  and  Bella  Vista,  but  the  principal 
rowing  centre  and  the  scene  of  the  prominent  regattas  is 
the  Tigre,  a  summer  resort  on  the  Plate  at  a  distance  of  some 
twenty  miles  from  the  capital.  Tigre  has  been  described  as 
"the  Henley  of  the  Argentine,"  and  the  brilliant  scene  and 
great  crowds  at  the  regattas  render  the  description  permissible. 
British,  Argentinos,  and  Germans  all  have  their  own  par- 
ticular clubs  and,  the  rivalry  is  keen.  Among  the  various 
trophies  competed  for  are  those  presented  by  the  President 
of  the  Republic  and  other  personages,  and  the  principal 
railway  companies.  Cricket  has  also  become  a  pastime, 
and  there  are  nine  principal  clubs  in  the  republic.  Golf 
is  also  making  rapid   progress  in  Argentina,  and  has  been 


140  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH  AMERICA 

taken  up  by  members  of  many  of  the  leading  Argentine 
families.  The  Argentine  Golf  Club  has  a  large  membership, 
and,  although  one  of  the  most  recently  formed  clubs,  is  one 
of  the  most  wealthy.  Excellent  links  are  to  be  found  also 
at  San  Martin,  Hurlingham,  Lomas,  Quilmes,  Fisherton, 
Cordoba,  and  Mar  del  Plata,  all  of  which  are  much  patronised. 
Among  the  numerous  trophies  annually  in  competition  may 
be  mentioned  those  given  by  the  Central  Argentine  Railway, 
the  St.  Andrew's  Society,  and  others. 

The  lottery  is  a  prominent  institution  in  Argentina,  as 
it  is  in  all  the  Latin  American  republics,  from  Mexico  to 
Chile.  The  streets  resound  with  the  cries  of  ticket-sellers, 
vending  their  wares  at  prices  to  suit  all  purses,  and  a  show 
of  morality  is  given  to  the  institution  by  the  handing  of  a 
percentage  of  profits  to  the  hospitals  and  other  charitable 
establishments.  The  system  of  performing  the  sortco  or 
drawing  in  public,  and  of  selecting  some  unknown  individual 
from  the  crowd  to  perform  it,  such  as  is  generally  adopted, 
is  pointed  to  as  ensuring  the  impartiality  of  the  operation. 
Every  inducement  is  held  out  to  the  population  of  Latin 
American  cities  to  indulge  in  gambling  in  the  form  of  buying 
lottery  tickets,  which  are  exhibited  everywhere.  In  Buenos 
Ayres  30  per  cent,  of  the  proceeds  of  the  sale  is  divided 
between  the  government  and  the  lottery  agents. 

The  theatre  is  the  chief  amusement  of  the  upper  classes,  and 
theatres  generally  fill  a  prominent  place  in  the  architecture 
of  the  capitals  :  bnildings  often  of  costly  construction.  On 
important  occasions  the  higher  social  elements  crowd  the 
theatres,  the  ladies  in  Parisian  gowns  and  wearing  jewels  in 
profusion.  Buenos  Ayres  has  become  one  of  the  most 
important  markets  for  diamonds  ;  an  evidence  of  its  grow- 
ing wealth  and  the  love  of  show  of  its  plutocracy.  As 
regards  its  moral  life  and  its  demi-monde,  the  Argentine 
capital  goes  the  way  of  all  wealthy  cities.  It  has  been  one 
of  the  principal  m.arkets  of  the  "  White  Slave  "  traffic,  and 
has  suffered  serious  indictments  in  the  foreign  press  in 
connection  with  the  matter  of  the  protection  of  women. 

In  certain  respects  the  Argentine  capital  may  be  likened 
with   Chicago.      It  has  the  same  characteristics — a  great 


REPUBLICS  OF  RIVER  PLATE—ARGENTINA  141 

food-producing  centre,  situated  on  a  flat  plain,  with  a  system 
of  scientific  meat  production,  an  absence  of  the  picturesque, 
and  a  marked  materiahsm — elements  from  which  have 
sprung  great  wealth.  Doubtless  these  matters  will  lead 
towards  ultimate  refinement  and  art,  as  time  goes  on. 
Buenos  Ayres  possesses  handsome  seaside  and  health 
resorts,  notably  Mar  del  Plata,  with  a  fine  sea  beach,  where 
the  season  in  the  month  of  March  is  known  as  the  "  Mes  de 
los  Ingleses,"  in  reference  to  the  numerous  English  visitors. 

In  Buenos  Ayres  the  phenomenon  of  high  cost  of  living, 
common  to  all  American  countries,  is  especiall}^  notable, 
and  the  European  immigrant  finds  that  the  ideal  of  a  home 
as  he  understood  it  in  the  land  of  his  birth  is  greatly 
modified.  Rents  for  houses,  which,  although  they  may  be 
garishly  stuccoed  and  ornate  outside,  have  little  but  bare 
walls  inside,  are  such  as  would  not  be  paid  in  England  for 
a  comfortable  house  replete  with  modern  appliances.  House 
property  in  Buenos  Ayres,  and  throughout  Latin  American 
capitals  generally,  is  looked  upon  as  a  speculation  rather 
than  an  investment,  and  rents  and  costs  rise  accordingly. 
Towards  the  close  of  1912  public  opinion  on  the  high  cost 
of  living  culminated  in  a  mass  meeting  in  Buenos  Ayres, 
before  the  House  of  Congress  to  protest  against  the  increase, 
and  a  petition  was  sent  to  the  President  asking  for  a  reduc- 
tion in  the  tariff  against  imported  necessaries,  the  lowering 
of  freight  rates  on  consumable  articles,  the  erection  of 
10,000  workmen's  dwellings,  and  the  voting  of  a  sum  of 
money  for  paving  and  other  public  works  to  provide  work 
for  the  unemployed.  Thus  do  the  evils  of  the  Old  World 
tend  to  become  reproduced  in  the  New  under  existing  con- 
ditions.   The  war  has  intensified  these  matters. 

Whilst  the  wealthy  element  in  Buenos  Ayres  is  finely 
housed  and  catered  for,  provision  for  the  dwellings  of  the 
poorer  part  of  the  population  is  insufficiently  considered. 
Away  from  the  better  quarters  of  the  city,  the  streets  are 
squalid  and  unsanitary.  The  magnificence  of  the  boulevards 
and  public  buildings  gives  way  to  poverty-stricken  dwellings 
and  dusty  or  muddy,  unpaved  roads,  which  merge  into  the 
brown  and  uninteresting  plain  on  which  the  city  is  built. 


142  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

Miserable  huts  and  shanties  of  dried  mud,  covered,  when 
their  owners  can  afford  it,  with  corrugated  iron  form  the 
habitations  of  the  poor  of  Buenos  Ayres.  The  capital  cities 
of  Latin  America  always  present  a  marked  contrast  of  rich 
and  poor.  The  greatest  care  and  skill  are  lavished  on  costly 
public  buildings,  private  mansions,  boulevards,  and  electric 
lights  :  a  background  against  which  stands  silhouetted  the 
incongruous  figure  of  the  hungry,  half-clad,  and  ignorant 
peon  or  Indian,  who  at  the  bottom  of  the  social  scale  is  in 
reality  the  mam  producer  of  the  country's  wealth. 

Taxation  in  Argentine,  as  in  Brazil  and  elsewhere,  contri- 
butes toward  the  high  cost  of  living  :  whether  national, 
provincial,  or  municipal.  Under  the  system  in  vogue  every 
article  of  food  and  clothing  is  taxed,  whether  it  comes 
from  the  provinces  or  from  abroad.  The  city  of  Buenos 
Ayres  imposes  taxes  on  various  articles  and  goods  from  the 
outside  provinces,  in  the  form  of  octroi  dues  collected  at  the 
city  gates.  Vegetables,  eggs,  fish,  meat,  bacon  and  other 
matters  are  subject  to  the  tax.  Advertisements  are 
also  taxed,  and  other  minor  matters.  Commercial  travellers 
are  taxed  in  Argentina — as  throughout  Latin  America  gene- 
rally— for  the  privilege  of  introducing  trade  into  the 
country,  government  fees  being  imposed  by  the  Board  of 
Trade,  or  its  equivalent  office,  on  all  bringing  in  samples. 
The  amount  of  the  tax  varies  according  to  the  class  of  goods 
dealt  in,  and  the  province  in  which  the  commercial  travelling 
is  done,  and  fluctuates  between  loo  and  600  dollars.  To  some 
extent  this  inter-state  taxation  is  a  necessary  concomitant 
of  federal  government  and  is  a  protection  to  local  industry, 
and  certainly  cannot  be  condemned  indiscriminately. 

The  city  second  in  importance  after  the  capital  is  Rosario, 
situated  on  the  Parana  River,  170  miles  by  water  and  186 
by  railway  from  Buenos  Ayres,  with  a  population  of  300,000. 
Rosario  was  a  mere  village  until  the  middle  of  last  century, 
and  its  growth  has  been  rapid  since  that  time,  and  it  now 
reflects,  on  only  a  somewhat  smaller  scale,  the  activities  of 
the  federal  capital.  It  contains  the  largest  sugar  refinery 
in  the  countr3^  The  city  is  an  exceedingly  important  com- 
mercial centre,  with  a  large  export  and  distributing  trade. 


REPUBLICS  OF  RIVER  PLATE— ARGENTINA  143 

and  the  network  of  railway  lines  connecting  it  with  all  parts 
of  the  repubhc  is  constantly  growing.  These  lines  give 
connection  with  Cordoba,  Mendoza,  and  the  Chilean  frontier, 
also  with  Salta,  Jujuy,  and  the  Bolivian  frontier,  and  traverse 
a  wide  area  of  territory,  rich  with  produce  and  commercial 
opportunities.  Improvements  in  the  port  works  are  being 
carried  out  at  considerable  cost. 

The  city  of  Cordoba  has  a  population  of  50,000.  It  is 
surrounded  by  beautiful  mountain  scenery.  The  famous  uni- 
versity, founded  in  1613,  forms  the  principal  educational 
centre  of  the  republic,  and  the  observatory  constitutes 
the  city  the  "  Greenwich  "  of  Argentina.  Mendoza  has  a 
population  of  40,000,  Tucuman  60,000.  La  Plata,  on  the 
estuary  of  the  River  Plate,  a  great  meat-shipping  port,  has 
100,000.  Other  large  towns  of  Argentina  are  Santa  Fe,  with 
40,000  inhabitants,  and  Parana  with  35,000.  There  are 
ten  or  more  towns  distributed  over  the  great  belt  of  territory 
served  by  the  railways,  with  populations  of  10,000  to  20,000 
people. 

Argentina  is  a  centre  of  considerable  newspaper  activity, 
and  the  Press,  represented  in  the  main  by  the  Buenos  Ayres 
newspapers,  is  the  most  important  in  Latin  America.  The 
two  principal  daily  papers  have,  it  is  stated,  a  circulation 
of  more  than  100,000  copies  ;  they  contain  cabled  news  from 
all  over  the  world,  and  the  difference  in  longitude  and  con- 
sequently in  time  enables  them  to  appear  several  hours 
earlier  than  the  European  papers.  In  addition  to  the  daily 
news,  articles  by  European  literary  men  are  a  constant 
feature  of  their  columns.  The  readers  of  the  Argentine 
papers  are  in  the  main  mostly  interested  in  Italy,  Spain,  and 
France,  the  lands  of  their  origin  or  association,  and  the  news 
from  those  countries  predominate  ;  but,  in  addition,  every 
nationality  in  Buenos  Ayres  supports  various  newpapers  in 
its  particular  language.  Of  the  periodicals  published  in  the 
city,  214  are  in  Spanish,  22  in  Italian,  8  in  German,  10  in 
English,  and  others  in  Scandinavian,  French,  Russian,  and 
Basque.  The  general  tone  of  the  Press  is  somewhat  sen- 
sational, and  more  "  American  "  in  character  than  European. 
Pohtics,  however,  do  not  generally  predominate,  as  political 


144  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

questions  are  but  little  defined  in  Argentina,  and  individuals 
rather  than  principles  form  the  rallying-points  of  partisan 
feeling  ;  a  condition  which  is  notable  throughout  the  Latin 
American  republics  generally.  There  are  altogether  280 
papers  in  Buenos  Ayres,  and  it  is  not  too  much  to  say  that 
the  leading  examples  of  the  Press  in  that  city  would  be  a 
credit  even  to  the  most  advanced  nation. 

No  real  political  parties  exist  in  the  Argentine  republic, 
as  understood  in  Europe.  The  questions  of  tariffs  in  coun- 
tries such  as  derive  their  main  revenues  from  custom 
house  dues  is  not  a  political  one,  protective  tariffs  being 
regarded  as  almost  unassailable  matters.  In  Argentina,  as 
in  Latin  America  generally,  the  matters  of  land  tenure, 
taxation,  and  government  cannot  escape  being  made  the 
subjects  of  party  strife  in  the  future.  The  extraordinary 
party  feeling  which  runs  so  frequently  to  bloodshed  in  the 
Latin  American  republics  is  not  generally  a  result  of  disputes 
regarding  any  fundamental  principle  concerning  good  govern- 
ment or  the  progress  of  the  masses,  but  is  brought  about 
chiefly  by  personal  ambition  and  reprisals. 

The  development  of  strikes  in  Latin  America  is  a  sign  of 
the  industrial  awakening  of  the  mechanic  and  artisan  class, 
who  have  learned  from  their  European  and  North  American 
brethren.  Serious  strikes  and  stoppages  on  the  Argentine 
railways  frequently  take  place.  January  is  the  commence- 
ment of  harvest  time,  and  is  generally  regarded  as  a  good 
opportunity  by  the  working  classes  for  declaring  a  strike. 
Demands  have  been  presented  by  the  railwaymen  on  various 
occasions  requiring  certain  improvements  regarding  working 
hours  and  pay,  and  some  of  the  companies  oppose  these 
matters  strongly.  The  labour  organisation  in  Argentina 
is  a  strong  one,  and  the  strikes  often  affect  the  whole  railway 
system  of  the  country.  Drivers  and  firemen,  with  the  other 
members  of  the  "  Fraternidad  " — or  the  Socialist  Brother- 
hood— number  many  thousands.  Stevedores  and  sailors 
on  river  steamers  often  strike  in  sympathy,  and  the  Socialist 
party  support  them.  The  drivers  consist  mainly  of  English- 
men and  Italians,  and  the  railway  companies,  both  British 
and  French,  act  together  against  their  demands.    Passenger 


REPUBLICS  OF  RIVER  PLATE— ARGENTINA     145 

and  goods  traffic  suffer  severely,  and  heavy  losses  are 
incurred  in  railway  revenue.  The  strikes  are  often  pro- 
longed, due  to  their  receiving  a  certain  measure  of  political 
support.  The  government  endeavour  to  bring  these  matters 
to  arbitration,  but  although  substantial  results  have  been 
obtained  by  the  men,  no  finality  can  yet  be  expected,  and 
the  foreign  shareholder  is  increasingly  perturbed  as  regards 
his  dividends.  The  position  of  the  men  in  Argentina  is 
very  different  from  that  of  the  same  class  in  England.  The 
wealthy  classes  and  agriculturists  control  the  bulk  of  the 
voting  power  and  are  strongly  represented  in  Parliament 
and  the  government  of  the  country:  and  labour  has  yet 
to  establish  itself  in  a  position  of  strength  such  as  would 
enable  it  to  enforce  its  demands.  The  wages  paid  to  rail- 
way men  in  Argentina  do  not  follow  any  uniform  standard, 
but  vary  considerably,  according  to  local  conditions.  The 
general  scale  provides  for  an  eight-hour  day  for  drivers 
and  firemen  of  passenger  trains,  and  ten  hours  for  freight 
trains,  with  drivers'  pay  fluctuating  between  ^^14  and 
;£20  per  month,  and  firemen's  £8  and  £14.  The  men  demand 
higher  pa}'-,  and  that  no  driver  of  a  passenger  train  should 
travel  more  than  150  miles  per  day,  and  should  have 
twelve  hours'  rest  after  his  journey,  with  the  opportunity  of 
returning  to  their  homes  once  in  every  six  days.  It  is  to 
be  recollected  that  the  speed  of  trains  in  South  America  is 
slow,  and  that  the  cost  of  living  in  Buenos  Ayres  is  exceed- 
ingly high.  A  law  known  as  the  Social  Defence  Law  exists 
in  Argentina,  under  which  strikers  or  their  leaders  disturbing 
the  peace  of  the  country  can  be  punished  or  deported.  This 
brief  description  shows  that  the  industrial  development  of 
Latin  America  carries  with  it  the  inevitable  industrial  dis- 
turbances and  the  conflict  between  capital  and  labour,  which 
are  likely  to  grow  rapidly  in  the  future.  The  position  of 
capital  is  much  less  secure  than  in  Europe  or  the  United 
States,  and  as  labour  becomes  better  educated  and  learns  to 
organise  itself,  it  is  highly  probable  that  it  may  obtain  the 
upper  hand :  also  that  Socialistic  elements  in  government 
will  increase. 

An  agrarian  movement  for  the  better  enjoyment  of  the 
land  by  small  farmers  has  taken  place  in  Argentina.    Much 


146  CENTRAL   AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

of  the  land  is  held  by  this  class  from  large  landholders,  and 
payment  made  in  a  percentage  of  crops,  which  have  been 
shown  to  be  excessive.  In  1912  the  methods  to  obtain 
redress  produced  something  like  anarchy  in  certain  western 
regions  of  the  republic,  and  the  government  were  forced  to 
interfere,  and  various  projects  were  presented  to  Congress. 
In  the  province  of  Buenos  Ayres,  it  was  proposed  that  the 
100,000  acres  of  fiscal  land  remaining  should  in  part  be  sold 
as  small  farms  to  bona  fide  colonists,  on  long  terms  of  pay- 
ment, the  price  in  instalments  being  equal  to  the  rent  paid. 

The  matter  of  insufficiently  administered  justice  in  Argen- 
tina is  serious,  and  has  been  dwelt  upon  elsewhere.  In  certain 
instances  the  governments  of  provinces  in  Argentina  have  been 
found  systematically  corrupt,  as  a  result  of  investigations 
made  by  the  federal  government  following  upon  complaints 
by  the  inhabitants.  Public  offices  and  lucrative  positions 
have  been  held  by  the  governor  and  his  friends,  public 
elections  have  degenerated  into  farcical  manipulations, 
and  bribery,  and  trickery  practised  to  prevent  opposition. 
Radical  and  Socialist  victories  at  the  poll  are  becoming  more 
frequent.  Voting  under  a  new  law  has  become  obligatory, 
and  in  Buenos  Ayres  during  an  election  of  April,  1912, 
104,000  electors  voted,  out  of  the  120,000  citizens  on  the 
military  roll,  upon  which  the  electoral  register  was  based. 
In  some  of  the  provinces  Radicals  were  also  successful,  but 
in  many  of  them  the  governors  followed  their  usual  practise 
of  securing  the  election  of  their  own  nominees.  Bribery 
was  practised  to  a  certain  extent,  but  the  ballot  being  secret 
the  results  of  attempted  bribery  were  of  doubtful  efficacy. 
There  is  a  marked  awakening  of  the  civic  spirit,  which  may 
lead  to  a  growth  of  Radical  power.  But  the  growth  of 
democracy  must  be  coupled  with  high  ideals,  or  otherwise 
"  Tammanyism  "  will  become  dominant. 

The  republic  of  Argentina  owes  its  fame  and  prosperity 
mainly  to  the  rapid  advance  of  its  great  agricultural  and 
pastoral  industries.  Prior  to  the  year  1880,  the  only  demand 
for  Argentine  live  stock  was  in  the  home-curing  of  jerked 
beef  or  charqui,  for  the  markets  of  Brazil  and  Cuba  ;  and 
the  production  of  wheat  and  maize  did  not  suffice  for  domestic 


REPUBLICS  OF  RIVER  PLATE -ARGENTINA  147 

requirements.  But  a  very  different  picture  is  presented  at 
the  present  time. 

After  the  campaign  against  the  Indians  in  1878,  which 
rendered  the  pampas  more  secure,  the  government  lands 
were  offered  for  sale  at  auction.  The  reserve  price  of  these 
valuable  lands  was  placed  at  £80  per  square  league  (equal 
to  6,670  acres),  with  the  purpose  of  encouraging  develop- 
ment, A  rapid  growth  of  the  pastoral  industry  followed  ; 
and  in  1908  the  census  of  live  stock  shewed  29,000,000 
cattle,  67,000,000  sheep,  7,500,000  horses,  1,500,000  hogs, 
and  4,250,000  mules  and  asses.  When  it  is  recollected 
that  the  progenitors  in  America  of  all  domestic  animals 
were  exotics,  it  will  be  seen  how  remarkable  has  been  the 
adaptabihty  of  South  American  soil  to  these  animal 
colonists  and  their  descendants.  The  first  sheep  were  intro- 
duced into  Argentina  in  1550,  followed  two  years  later  by 
seven  cows  and  one  bull.  There  now  are  more  than  a  quarter 
of  a  million  establishments  in  Argentina  maintaining  flocks 
and  herds,  covering  an  area  of  more  than  65,000  square  miles, 
and  representing  a  calculated  value  in  land  and  stock  of 
nearly  4,000,000,000  gold  dollars. 

In  1900  the  British  ports  were  closed  to  the  import  of  live 
stock  from  Argentina,  due  to  foot  and  mouth  disease  ;  and 
this  import — which  had  decreased  from  382,000  head  of 
beef  and  512,000  sheep  in  1896  to  150,500  and  198,000  head 
in  that  year — fell  further.  On  the  other  hand,  the  export 
of  frozen  and  chilled  meats  increased  ;  the  frozen  beeves 
exported  in  1908  being  574,000  and  3,300,000  sheep.  In 
1920  the  exports  of  frozen  beef  were  4,550,000  quarters, 
chilled  630,000  quarters,  and  frozen  mutton  1,194,000 
carcases.  In  1908  the  export  of  wool  was  165,000  tons,  having 
declined  from  237,000  tons  in  1899.  Whilst  the  totals  have 
declined,  it  is  held  that  values  have  not  ;  these  having  been 
increased  by  improving  the  breed  and  quality.  In  1906, 
2,180  Durham  cattle  were  imported  for  breeding  purposes, 
and  6,500  Lincoln  sheep  ;  as  well  as  other  staple  varieties 
of  cattle  and  sheep.  High  praise  is  accorded  to  Argentina 
for  classes  of  cattle  exhibited  at  the  national  cattle  shows. 


148  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 

bred  both  from  sires  imported  from  England,  and  from 
Argentine  stock.  The  best  beef-producing  types  are  raised, 
and  the  large  number  of  prize  exhibits  and  the  general 
excellence  of  the  stock  show  the  possibilities  of  the  industry 
under  scientific  methods.  These  conditions  have  attracted 
the  attention  of  the  North  American  meat  trusts,  whose 
agents  have  entered  upon  operations  in  Argentina,  especially 
in  refrigerating  and  slaughtering  establishments. 

Strongly  associated  with  agriculture  in  Argentina  is  the 
"Argentine  Rural  Society,"  whose  position  is  of  interest  and 
importance.  In  the  year  1866  a  group  of  gentlemen  farmers 
came  together  with  the  object  of  founding  the  "  Sociedad 
Rural  Argentina  "  with  the  following  purposes*  : — To  foster 
and  promote  the  development  and  the  advancement  of 
agriculture  and  pastoral  and  by-industries,  to  support  all 
initiative  in  that  direction,  to  aim  at  the  betterment  of  agri- 
cultural and  breeding  methods,  to  hold  exhibitions,  promote 
scientific  investigations,  stimulate  private  initiative  and  help 
government  enterprise,  and  generally  to  defend  agricultural 
interests.  The  association  began  its  task  without  much 
help  from  the  corporation  of  breeders,  but  it  rendered  im- 
portant services  to  the  country  in  publishing  useful  infor- 
mation in  its  bulletin  on  rural  and  pastoral  topics,  and 
bringing  measures  before  the  government ;  and  it  is  now 
directly  engaged  in  all  branches  of  the  pastoral  industries. 
The  society  raised  a  subscription  with  which  cattle  were 
bought  and  sent  frozen  to  Europe  for  a  trial ;  the  first  trial 
did  not  prove  satisfactory,  but  the  society  continued  its 
propaganda  ;  and  four  years  after,  in  1882,  the  first  Frozen 
Meat  Company  was  founded.  In  the  year  1875  the  society 
held  its  first  show  :  a  modest  beginning  which  was  regarded 
with  some  indifference.  Only  79  horses,  18  head  of  cattle, 
and  79  sheep  were  exhibited :  and  the  total  sales  only 
reached  10,500  dollars  gold,  which  is  less  than  the  price  paid 
in  1909  for  the  champion  Durham  bull.  After  the  year  1876 
the  shows  were  held  in  the  grounds  of  the  society  at  Palermo, 
where  large  pavilions  and  stands  have  been  erected,  trans- 
forming the  show  grounds  into  a  model  of  their  kind  :  and 

*  The  Times  South  American  Supplement. 


REPUBLICS  OF  RIVER  PLATE— ARGENTINA    149 

the  value  of  the  sales  increased  yearly  to  1,578,000  dollars 
gold  in  1909. 

The  export  of  live  stock  and  frozen  meat  convinced  the 
breeders  of  the  necessity  of  obtaining  a  model  beef  type. 
Large  zones  of  alfalfa,  or  lucerne,  were  opened  for  the  breed- 
ing and  fattening  of  refined  cattle.  The  immense  pampas, 
which  in  their  primitive  state  could  support  only  a  small 
number  of  herds,  are  now,  due  to  the  cultivation  of  alfalfa, 
which  flourishes  well  there,  being  converted  into  good  pasture 
lands  for  the  breeding  of  fine  stock:  and  the  lands  of  the 
Central  Provinces  have  multiplied  their  yielding  capacity 
more  than  tenfold  since  the  tim.e  when  the  herds  roamed 
over  them  in  their  original  state.  The  native  bony,  but 
resisting,  stock  has  been  bettered  with  the  finest  animals 
obtainable  from  British  farms.  The  Argentine  Republic 
has  in  the  last  twenty  years  contributed  in  this  way  not  less 
than  6,000,000  dollars  gold  towards  the  prosperity  of  British 
cattle-raising.  Many  thousand  head  of  breeding  stock  have 
been  imported  during  those  years,  Shorthorns  being  the 
most  numerous.  One  of  the  most  useful  tasks  accomplished 
by  the  society  for  the  advantage  of  cattle-raising  was  the 
opening  of  genealogical  records  for  all  breeds  having  a  record 
in  their  country  of  origin,  with  a  Herd  Book,  Stud  Book, 
Flock  Book,  and  Swine  Book.  In  these  records  94,536 
anim.als  were  registered  up  to  October,  1909.  The  Argentine 
Herd  Book  was  opened  in  188S  for  Shorthorns  and  Herefords; 
the  Flock  Book  in  1893  for  Lincolns ;  and  the  Stud  Book  in 
1907.  The  Jockey  Club  possesses  a  Stud  Book  for  registra- 
tion of  thoroughbred  horses  exclusively.  Before  an  imported 
animal  can  be  entered  in  the  Argentine  Shorthorn  Herd 
Book,  it  is  essential  that  the  pedigree  be  traced  to  1850  or 
earlier.    In  1919  60,500  head  of  beef  were  inxported. 

Whether  the  limit  has  been  approached  for  the  great 
pastoral  industry  in  Argentina,  or  whether  it  will  continue 
to  increase,  has  been  the  subject  of  discussion.  The  most 
recent  census  shews  a  decline  in  live  stock  since  1908.  The 
number  of  head  of  cattle  given  by  the  last  census  (in  1917) 
was  27,000,000;  of  sheep,  44,850,000;  horses,  9,050,000; 
hogs,  3,380,000;    mules  and  asses,  855,000.     Heavy  losses 


150  SOUTH  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 

by  reason  of  droughts,  disease,  and  other  causes  ha\'e 
occurred.  In  some  provinces  there  has  been  a  decrease, 
due  to  the  wasteful  and  indiscriminate  kilHng  of  cows. 
In  1911  4,000,000  head  of  cattle  were  slaughtered  for 
domestic  consumption  and  1,000,000  for  foreign  markets, 
and  doubts  have  been  entertained  as  to  whether  herds  are 
being  conserved  with  sufficient  prudence.  The  price  of 
Argentine  meat  has  fallen  considerably  since  1908,  the 
average  price  in  London  at  that  date  having  been  19  cents 
per  pound,  against  the  ruling  average  for  191 1  of  16  cents, 
with  large  consignments  at  a  much  lower  figure.  Possibly 
Argentina,  whilst  remaining  a  valuable  source  of  world- 
supply,  has  reached  its  limit. 

The  great  pampas  of  Argentina,  the  campo  where  the 
basis  of  the  life  of  the  republic  lies,  has  its  own  special  atmo- 
sphere and  character.  The  gigantic  herds  of  cattle  that  have 
been  brought  to  being  and  the  peculiar  personality  of  the 
gaucho,  the  primitive  horseman  whose  life  is  passed  in  driv- 
ing and  tending  them,  have  become  synonymous  with  the 
life  of  Argentina,  the  great  cattle  industry  to  which  the  cities 
are  but  secondary.  The  monotony  of  nature  is  reflected 
in  the  monotony  of  the  life  of  the  region.  To  be  a  reservoir 
for  the  production  of  meat  and  wheat  for  distant  nations, 
receiving  in  return  their  gold,  a  relatively  small  part  of  which 
filters  on  to  the  pampa  through  the  intercepting  medium  of 
Buenos  Ayres,  is  the  present  destiny  of  the  land.  The 
dweller  in  the  campo  has  little  means  of  escape  from  the 
plains  life.  The  vastness  of  the  surroundings,  the  badness 
of  the  roads,  the  great  distance  between  dwellings,  the  only 
method  of  overcoming  which  is  the  primitive  one  of  the  horse, 
the  boundless,  empty  horizon,  upon  which  even  a  house  or 
a  horseman  stands  out  as  something  welcome  in  the  mono- 
tony, all  have  their  effect  of  silence  and  reserve.  The  roads, 
if  such  they  may  be  termed,  are  bordered  by  endless  miles 
of  wire  fencing,  and  form  tracks  either  of  dust  or  mud, accord- 
ing to  the  time  of  year  ;  for  on  the  alluvial  plains  material 
for  road-metalhng  is  not  to  be  obtained.  Travelling  by 
motor  car  is  slow  on  such  highways,  and  better  progress  is 
made  on  the  prairie  itself.     On   the  great   cattle  ranges  or 


REPUBLICS  OF  RIVER  PLATE— ARGENTINA  151 

estancias,  where  natural  pasture  is  the  only  form  of  fodder, 
as  is  the  case  with  the  majority  of  the  estates,  the  vast  herds 
of  cattle  exist  almost  automatically,  with  little  time  or 
labour  expended  upon  them.  The  cattle  are  not  housed  as 
in  colder  climates,  and  they  bear  the  full  brunt  of  the  scorch- 
ing sun  or  piercing  wind.  Three  great  scourges  afflict  the 
land  at  times  :  drought,  locusts,  and  storms.  If  the  rain 
fails,  death  is  the  only  escape  from  thirst  for  myriads  of 
beasts  ;  the  consequence  of  the  bringing  to  being  of  multi- 
tudes of  cattle  upon  a  territory  where  nature  itself  has  not 
provided  either  food  or  water  for  them.  The  castigation  of 
drought  falls  with  terrible  suddenness  on  the  great  pampas, 
and  at  such  seasons  harvests,  grass,  and  forage  fail,  and  if 
with  the  spring  the  rain  does  not  fall,  the  plains  are  strewn 
with  dying  or  rotting  cattle — a  lamentable  spectacle.  It 
is  impossible  to  feed  artificially  herds  so  vast,  and  equally 
impossible  to  bury  them  when  dead.  The  inhabitants  of 
the  cattle  farms  do  not  trouble  themselves  to  bury  dead 
cattle,  and  the  carcases  are  left,  to  mummify  under  the 
action  of  the  wind  and  sun,  or  to  putrefy  amid  flies  and  dust  ; 
and  these  matters  are  disagreeable  features  of  Argentine 
life  on  the  plains.*  Thousands  of  animals  perish  upon 
single  estates  in  times  of  drought,  and  it  is  difficult  to  excuse 
a  system  which  is  so  prodigal  of  animal  life.  Under  such 
conditions  it  is  not  to  be  expected  that  fine  cattle  are  the 
exception,  or  rather  that  the  specially  fed  and  bred  varieties 
are  the  show  cattle  of  Argentina.  As  regards  horses,  the 
breaking  in  of  these  is  often  primitively  brutal  in  its  methods, 
as  indeed  is  the  management  of  all  kinds  of  animals  in  the 
hands  of  the  Latin  American, who  is  far  from  being  a  merciful 
man  to  his  beast.  The  horse  and  the  ox  have  a  heavy 
reckoning  to  settle  with  the  Spanish  people.  These  are  the 
drawbacks  of  what  is  a  valuable  and  colossal  industry, 
useful  to  the  country  and  the  world  at  large. 

The  enormous  estates  of  the  pampas,  some  of  them  con- 
taining a  hundred  square  miles  of  land,  must  give  way  in 
time  to  smaller  holdings  ;    and  legislation  tends  that  way. 

*  These  circumstances  among  others  impressed  Monsieur  Clemenceau, 
as  recorded  in  his  book  on  South  America. 


152  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

At  present  the  contrast  between  the  luxury  of  the  home  of 
the  wealthy  estanciero  and  the  primitive  condition  of  his 
lands,  cattle,  and  dependants  is  probably  more  marked  than 
in  any  other  land.  Agricultural  feudalism  in  the  new  world, 
from  Mexico  to  Argentina,  dies  slowly,  and  the  great  estates 
must  be  regarded  as  centres  whence  rural  civilisation  makes 
its  way  somewhat  as  it  did  in  the  times  of  the  feudal  land- 
holders of  Europe,  Probably,  however,  it  is  destined  to  a 
shorter  continuance.  The  standard  of  life  of  the  cattle- 
labourer  in  the  Argentine  would,  however,  compare  favour- 
ably with  the  agricultural  labourer  on  an  English  farm. 

The  cattle  of  the  Argentine  were  originally  of  the  Spanish 
long-horned  variety,  and  not  of  much  value  for  meat,  but 
as  the  pastoral  industries  developed  the  Durham,  Short- 
horns, Hereford,  and  other  British  stock  which  were  intro- 
duced have  greatly  improved  the  breeds  among  the  well- 
tended  herds.  Dairying  industries  are  acquiring  importance 
follov/ing  upon  the  importation  of  Jersey  and  other  cows  ; 
and  butter  and  cheese-making  have  been  brought  about. 
In  the  year  igio,  61,000  cases  of  Argentine  butter  were 
exported.  To  the  coarse  and  hard  grasses  of  the  natural 
pastures  in  some  districts,  great  improvement  has  been 
made,  permanent  pasture  of  excellent  quality  being  created, 
and  hay  also  has  become  an  article  of  export.  Ploughing 
the  pampa  and  irrigating  and  sovv^ing  with  alfalfa  is  being 
more  and  more  adopted  as  availability  of  labour  and  water 
supply  increase  ;  thus  turning  portions  of  the  desolate  semi- 
arid  plains  into  fields  and  plantations,  which  has  its  bene- 
ficial effect  both  upon  the  live  stock  and  upon  the  human 
inhabitants  of  the  Argentine  campo. 

The  pastoral  wealth  of  Argentine  owes  much  to  the  system 
of  cold  storage,  the  science  of  conveying  chilled  and  frozen 
meats  overseas  to  Europe.  The  inspection  of  animals  for 
this  important  trade  has  been  made  a  matter  of  govern- 
mental concern  and  regulation,  and  the  practical  and  scien- 
tific methods  employed  are  perhaps  superior  to  those  of 
any  other  lands.  The  Minister  of  Agriculture,  into  whose 
department  the  matter  enters,  has  scientific  advisers  and 
numerous  inspectors  engaged  upon  the  work.     The  reve- 


REPUBLICS  OF  RIVER  PLATE— ARGENTINA  153 

lations  made  a  few  years  ago  in  the  American  meat-packing 
industry  show,  however,  the  necessity  for  the  most  stringent 
methods,  and  the  danger  that  private  interests  may  act 
adversely  to  governmental  theories.  The  rapidity  with 
which  Argentina  has  passed  the  United  States  in  supplying 
beef  to  the  United  Kingdom,  due  in  the  main  to  the  in- 
creasing home  consumption  in  North  America,  is  shown 
by  the  fact  that  in  1901  Argentina  exported  to  Great  Britain 
only  40,000  cwts.  of  beef  against  nearly  3,250,000  cwts. 
exported  by  the  United  States  ;  whilst  in  191 1  the  latter 
country  sent  only  174,000  cwts.,  and  Argentina  3,750,000 
cwts.  The  future  expansion  of  the  Argentine  meat  trade 
depends  largely  upon  the  matter  of  the  high  custom  dues 
into  most  European  countries.  If  these  become  lowered 
the  trade  should  increase  largely.  A  heavy  tax  is  imposed 
by  Germany  upon  imports  from  Argentina,  and  frozen 
meats  are  entirely  prohibited  entry  :  measures  which  the 
exponents  of  protective  tariffs  claim  as  necessary  to  the 
home  interests  of  the  Empire.  How  long  this  condition  will 
continue  it  is  of  course  impossible  to  forecast,  but  it  involves 
certain  contradictory  conditions.  The  advocates  of  "  free 
food  "  in  Germany  state  that  importation  of  Argentine  meats 
would  be  of  benefit  to  the  poorer  classes,  who  suffer  severely 
by  reason  of  the  dearness  of  meat.  Also,  German  trade 
with  Argentina  is  important  as  an  outlet  for  manufacturing 
interests,  which  run  the  risk  of  reprisals  by  that  republic, 
which  reasonably  might  insist  upon  some  form  of  reciprocity. 
The  United  States  similarly  tax  goods  from  Argentina,  and 
are  equally  subject  to  some  form  of  retaliation. 

Agriculture  has  shown  a  growth  in  Argentina  no  less 
remarkable  than  the  pastoral  industries.  In  1895  there 
were  under  cultivation  12,000,000  acres  of  land,  which  grew 
to  45,000,000  acres  in  1908.  In  1919-20  the  area  was 
58,000,000.  Of  this  15,000,000  are  in  wheat,  8,000,000  in 
maize,  21,000,000  in  alfalfa,  2,000,000  in  oats,  nearly 
400,000  in  flax,  with  237,000  acres  in  sugar  cane  and  300,000 
under  vines.  The  yield  of  wheat  was  4,670,000  tons ;  maize, 
5,696,000;  wheat  and  flour  export,  4,000,000.  It  is  calcu- 
lated that  there  exist  175,000,000  acres  of  land  suitable  for 


154  SOUTH  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 

cereals,  an  enormous  area;  and  it  is  held  that  production 
increases  in  greater  proportion  than  population.  Agriculture 
in  Argentina,  whilst  it  is  a  powerful  industry,  suffers  from 
some  deterrents  of  a  serious  nature.  The  best  and  most 
accessible  lands  are  in  the  hands  of  large  owners,  to  whom 
the  actual  farmer  pays  rent,  which  is  paid  largely  in  a  per- 
centage of  the  crops  raised.  A  succession  of  good  years  tends 
to  increase  the  rent  under  the  system;  whilst,  when  con- 
secutive bad  seasons  occur,  the  farmer  may  move  elsewhere, 
which  is  conducive  to  instability.  The  average  yield  of  wheat 
in  Argentine  soil  is  only  12  or  13  bushels  to  the  acre,  and 
methods  of  cultivation  are  in  some  respects  crude.  The 
broadcast  sowing  machine  is  generally  employed  for  wheat 
and  linseed,  but  the  advantages  of  the  drill  are  being  recog- 
nised as  more  suitable  for  the  condition  of  moisture  in  the 
soil,  and  as  effecting  an  economy  in  the  amount  of  seed  used. 
The  Argentine  farmer  is  greatly  dependent  for  his  existence 
upon  grain,  and  if  his  cereal  crop  fails  the  farmer  has  no 
resources  to  tide  him  over.  The  yield  of  maize  in  good  seasons 
is  slightly  under  one  ton  per  acre,  which  in  poor  seasons  falls 
to  half  that  amount.  The  carriage  of  cereals  forms  an 
important  source  of  revenue  for  the  railways,  which  suffer 
loss  in  lean  years. 

In  the  year  191 1  the  maize  crop  was  a  failure,  but  in  1912 
yielded  largely,  and  some  4,500,000  tons  were  available  for 
export,  out  of  a  total  production  of  7,500,000  tons.  The 
average  maize  export  is  2,000,000  tons,  and  Argentina  thus 
supphes  about  half  the  total  maize  exports  of  the  world, 
which  is  approximately  4,250,000  tons.  North  America, 
with  an  enormous  output  of  64,000,000  tons  (in  1911) 
exports  less  than  750,000  tons,  after  providing  for  home  re- 
quirements. The  value  of  Argentina  as  a  food  supply  for 
export  is  thus  evident,  but  it  is  likely  in  the  future  to  follow 
the  same  course  as  regards  home  consumption  as  the  United 
States.  The  Balkan  States,  Austria,  and  Russia  in  191 1 — 
as  a  measure  of  comparison — produced  5,000,000,  4,000,000, 
and  2,000,000  tons  respectively  of  maize,  with  an  available 
export  of  1,250,000  tons. 

The  wool-producing  industry  is  mainly  carried  on  in  the 


REPUBLICS  OF  RIVER  PLATE— ARGENTINA  155 

province  of  Buenos  Ayres,  Entre  Rios,  Cordoba,  Santa  Fe, 
and  Corrientes  ;  and  in  the  cold  regions  of  the  south,  upon 
the  national  lands  of  Patagonia.  In  1908  the  value  of  the 
export  of  wool  (175,500  tons),  reached  £9,374,000.  The  wool 
is  purchased  principally  by  agents  of  French,  German,  and 
Belgian  manufacturers,  but  some  Lincoln  fleeces  are  sent 
to  Britain  and  the  United  States.  The  extensive  plains  of 
the  southern  territories  are  growing  in  value  as  sheep  areas  ; 
and  are  similar  in  character  to  the  Falkland  Isles,  famous  for 
their  sheep  industry. 

The  possibilities  of  cotton  cultivation  in  Argentina,  on 
a  large  scale,  are  receiving  more  attention,  and  the  region 
of  the  Gran  Chaco  territory  is  that  which  especially  offers 
the  necessary  conditions  of  soil  and  climate  for  the  successful 
growth  of  the  plant.  On  the  existing  cotton  plantations 
in  the  Gran  Chaco,  the  rich,  black  alluvial  soil  is  similar  in 
character  to  that  of  the  Mississippi  valley  in  Louisana,  and 
yields  vigorous  and  productive  cotton  plants  ;  and  these 
great  plains  appear  to  offer  an  excellent  field  for  the  exten- 
sion of  the  industry  of  cotton  growing  in  South  America. 
A  very  extensive  area  of  this  class  of  land  is  available,  but 
suitable  labour  will  have  to  be  attracted  to  the  region  before 
production  on  a  large  scale  can  be  entered  upon.  Instruction 
in  cotton  culture  is  provided  in  the  district  by  the  National 
Agricultural  school.  The  Argentina  cotton  crop  comes  to  an 
end  in  May  ;  the  American  begins  in  August,  which  circum- 
stances are  favourable  to  the  Argentina  industry.  High 
prices  have  been  obtained  for  Argentine  cotton,  and  a  satis- 
factory profit  made  upon  its  cultivation  ;  and  it  is  proved 
that  these  great  regions  of  the  Argentine  Chaco  might  add 
considerably  to  the  world's  supply. 

Typical  of  a  particular  kind  of  agricultural  condition  is 
the  province  of  Mendoza,  the  California  of  the  Argentine 
republic  :  a  region,  with  an  area  of  54,000  square  miles  and 
population  of  about  200,000  inhabitants.  The  capital  of 
this  province  is  the  town  of  Mendoza,  situated  on  the  slope 
of  the  Andes  at  2,300  feet  elevation  above  sea  level.  Men- 
doza is  a  pleasing  and  well-appearing  town,  and  the  pros- 
perity of  its  surrounding  agricultural  resources  is  due  to  the 


156  CENTRAL   AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

irrigation  of  the  land,  by  canals  drawing  water  from  the 
eastward-flowing  rivers  fed  by  the  melting  snows  of  the 
Cordillera  ;  which  give  life  and  fertility  to  the  vineyards. 
The  vineyards  cover  a  large  area  of  land  and  form  properties 
valued  at  many  millions  of  pounds,  containing  upwards 
of  1,000  bodegas,  or  wine-producing  establishments.  The 
fertility  of  the  soil  under  artificial  irrigation  in  this  region 
and  the  temperate  climate  favour  in  addition  the  production 
of  olives  and  fruits  of  various  kinds,  whilst  alfalfa  and 
cattle-raising  are  only  secondary  to  the  viticultural  interests. 
To  the  province  of  San  Juan  the  heavy  snowfall  in  the  Andes 
comes  in  the  nature  of  salvation,  and  during  1912,  water  for 
irrigation  was  plentiful,  and  resuscitated  vineyards  and  fields 
which  had  been  long  abandoned  by  reason  of  the  drought. 
The  same  snowfall,  however,  blocked  the  Trans- Andean 
railway  for  months.  Extensive  irrigation  works,  dams, 
and  flood-control  works  are  to  be  carried  out  by  the  national 
government  in  the  San  Juan  river. 

To  the  north  of  Mendoza  lies  Tucuman,  the  centre  of  a 
great  sugar-producing  region,  which  extends  for  a  con- 
siderable distance  upon  the  western  plains  of  Argentina. 
In  the  various  provinces  of  that  region  exist  a  number  of 
factories  producing  sugar,  thirty  of  which  are  at  Tucuman, 
whose  prosperity  is  based  upon  sugar  production.  More 
than  130,000  tons  of  sugar  per  annum  are  refined  in  these 
estabhshments,  and  great  quantities  of  alcohol  are  produced, 
yielding  an  excise  duty  of  16,000,000  dollars  per  annum  to 
the  government.  There  are  more  than  175,000  acres  of 
cane  under  cultivation,  and  the  town  of  Tucuman  contains 
nearly  60,000  inhabitants.  Great  wealth  has  been  made  by 
individual  plantation  and  factory  owners  in  the  industry 
of  sugar  production  :  one  of  whom  recently  left  a  fortune 
of  100,000,000  dollars.  The  factories  are  equipped  with 
modern  machinery,  and  a  large  number  of  hands  are 
employed. 

The  law  concerning  sugar  production  in  Argentina  is  of 
some  interest,  as  showing  the  endeavour  on  the  part  of  the 
government  to  balance  production  with  consumption.  Due 
appreciation  has  been  shown  by  recent  legislation  to  the 


REPUBLICS  OF  RIVER  PLATE— ARGENTINA  157 

value  of  the  industry  to  the  country  and  of  the  necessity 
for  encouraging  it,  and  the  recent  customs  law  provides  for 
the  maintenance  of  a  duty  on  imported  sugar.  This  was 
placed  at  nine  cents  per  kilogram  for  a  period  of  ten  years, 
subject  to  a  diminution  of  one-fifth  of  a  cent  per  annum; 
and  the  fiscal  protection  has  been  beneficial  to  the  pro- 
ducer, and  is  held  to  be  a  safeguard  for  the  consumer 
against  high  prices.  Further,  the  amount  of  sugar  that  it 
is  permitted  to  import  is  limited  to  the  amount  of  the  esti- 
mated shortage  in  the  local  crop,  and  this  is  to  be  agreed 
upon  in  advance  by  arrangement  between  the  government 
and  those  concerned  in  production  and  importation.  For- 
merly the  government  had  the  right  to  reduce  the  import 
dues  whenever  the  price  of  sugar  rose,  and  within  certain 
limits  they  retain  this  right.  With  the  rapid  growth  of 
population  the  difliculty  has  been  to  supply  the  domestic 
demand,  and  the  factories  enjoy  an  active  local  market. 
Vast  areas  of  land  are  still  available  for  cane  cultivation, 
and  the  country  should  remain  self-supplying.  The  ex- 
tending of  the  cultivated  area  depends,  however,  largely  upon 
availability  of  labour  and  the  cost  of  wages.  British  capital 
is  employed  to  some  extent  in  the  Argentine  sugar  industry, 
principally  in  the  estates  lying  some  200  miles  to  the  north 
of  Tucuman. 

The  sugar  industry  in  Argentina  is  an  important  branch 
of  rural  activity  :  but  the  condition  of  the  workers,  who 
produce  this  wealth,  and  among  whom  there  is  a  large  pro- 
portion of  Indian  labour,  leaves  much  to  be  desired.  The 
workers  draw  little  advantage  from  the  riches  they  have 
helped  to  create.  Their  dwellings  are  generally  barracks, 
or  shanties  of  mud  or  wattle,  forming  sub-tropical  slums 
of  the  worst  description,  from  which  the  most  rudimentary 
elements  of  sanitation  and  comfort  are  lacking.  In  Argen- 
tina agricultural  labour  is  practically  unprotected  by  the 
law  ;  there  are  few  regulations  to  secure  the  workmen 
against  undue  advantage  on  the  part  of  the  employer  ; 
laws  such  as  in  Britain  have  been  fought  out  by  painful 
degrees.  The  contrast  between  the  luxury  of  the  wealthy 
estate  and  factory  owner  and  the  poverty-stricken  labourers 


158  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

is  very  marked  in  the  rich  and  thriving  republic  of  Argen- 
tina ;  scarcely  less  so  than  in  the  poorer  Latin  American 
countries,  where  the  worst  forms  of  negligence  and  oppres- 
sions are  visited  upon  the  proletariate.  The  only  redeeming 
feature  of  agriculture  in  this  region,  from  the  sociological 
point  of  view,  is  the  mild  climate,  which  enables  the  native 
worker  to  dispense  with  substantial  dwellings  and  other 
necessaries  of  harsher  climates.  This  condition,  however, 
is  not  likely  to  be  productive  of  an  advanced  civilisation. 

Among  the  most  severe  plagues  of  Argentina  are  dust 
storms  and  locusts,  following  upon  the  droughts.  The  dust,  it 
is  true,  attests  the  fineness  of  the  alluvial  soil,  but  is  a  source 
of  great  discomfort.  The  locusts  are  a  severe  scourge  at 
times,  ravaging  the  cultivated  plains  and  devouring  every 
green  leaf,  after  the  manner  of  the  same  plague  in  Algeria. 
Coming  from  almost  unknown  sources,  clouds  of  locusts 
descend  suddenly  upon  the  land,  and  within  a  few  hours 
nothing  remains  ;  and  crops  and  gardens,  the  work  of  a 
whole  season,  are  absolutely  destroyed.  The  government 
of  Argentina  spend  large  sums  of  money  in  the  endeavour 
to  contravert  the  mischief  done  by  these  insects,  but  no 
efficient  remedy  has  yet  been  discovered.  The  primitive 
mode  of  driving  the  locusts  away  by  creating  a  din  upon 
their  approach,  by  beating  pots  and  pans  or  any  other 
method,  is  sometimes  employed,  but  this  simply  turns  them 
from  the  one  plantation  to  a  neighbouring  one,  and  can 
scarcely  be  regarded  as  an  economic  or  an  altruistic  remedy. 
It  is  to  the  wild  and  impenetrable  region  of  the  Great  Chaco 
that  the  origin  of  the  flights  of  locusts  is  traced. 

Seen  from  the  window  of  the  train,  Argentina  is  for  the 
greater  part  very  flat,  the  traveller  who  journeys  b}^  railway 
from  Buenos  Ayres  to  Rosario,  proceeding  thence  to  Tucu- 
man,  and  returning  by  Cordoba  may  acquire  some  knowledge 
of  the  character  of  the  northern  half  of  the  republic. 
Buenos  Ayres  is  left  early  in  the  morning  and  Rosario  reached 
early  in  the  afternoon.  The  journey  is  over  a  country  as 
flat  as  a  table,  divided  into  large  fields  of  pasture,  wheat, 
or  maize,  with  here  and  there  a  solitary  white-washed  house, 
surrounded  by  young  trees  of  a  peculiar  species  which  is 


REPUBLICS  OF  RIVER  PLATE— ARGENTINA  159 

immune  from  the  voracity  of  the  locust.  During  the  periods 
when  the  Argentine  has  suffered  much  from  its  two  enemies, 
the  drought  and  the  locust,  the  effects  of  the  former  are 
sufhciently  visible,  not  only  in  the  dried-up  appearance  of 
the  land,  but  in  the  numerous  carcases  of  dead  horses  and 
cattle  lying  along  the  line.  The  locusts  may  not  always 
appear  in  those  dense  columns  which  darken  the  air,  but 
they  may  be  as  thick  as  the  flakes  of  a  snowstorm.  They 
swarm  in  at  the  open  window  and  alight  on  the  passenger  ; 
and  the  Argentino  crushes  them  with  vindictive  pleasure. 
The  remedy  for  the  locusts  is  the  wind  that  sweeps  them 
away,  as  far  as  local  feeling  is  concerned.  A  belt  of  what  is 
practically  a  dusty  desert  region  extends  from  east  to  west 
to  the  north  of  Cordoba  and  Rosario,  and  before  the  advent 
of  the  railway  the  trade  from  Tucuman  was  conducted  by 
caravans,  which  set  out  in  one  year  and  returned  during  the 
next,  the  going  traders  meeting  the  returning  ones  in  the 
market-place  of  Rosario.  It  is  stated  that  whole  caravans 
perished  at  times,  in  those  earlier  periods,  from  thirst  in 
the  dry  country  or  at  the  hands  of  the  Indians,  who  then 
waged  war  against  the  settlers  and  traders  ;  and  the  scenes 
and  method  of  this  early  commerce  were  almost  Arabian  in 
character.  Tucuman  under  the  early  Spanish  rule  was  an 
important  place,  and  under  the  mandates  proceeding  from 
Spain  all  trade  was  compelled  to  take  the  route  lying  through 
the  town,  and  through  Salta,  to  the  north,  in  order  that  all 
commerce  should  be  conducted  from  South  America 
through  Peru.  The  town  contains  the  hall  in  which  the 
independence  of  the  republic  was  proclaimed.  Further 
important  irrigation  works  are  being  considered  in  this  part 
of  Argentina,  as  an  offset  to  the  effects  of  drought. 

The  northern  region  of  Argentina,  comprising  the  pro- 
vinces of  Tucuman,  Salta,  Jujuy,  Santiago  del  Estero, 
Corrientes,  and  the  territories  of  the  Misiones  and  Chaco  is, 
as  shown,  endowed  with  considerable  wealth  and  capable  of 
extreme  development.  This  region  lies  between  latitude 
2i|°  and  30°  south,  that  is,  in  the  sub-tropical  zone, 
entering  the  tropics  in  the  northern  part  ;  and  its  area  em- 
bodies some  20,000,000  acres  of  land,  including  about  35.000 


i6o  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

square  kilometres  of  forest.  The  population  and  cultiva- 
tion of  the  region  is,  however,  concentrated  in  a  very  small 
area.  The  land,  although  of  great  possibilities,  is  not  suit- 
able for  exploitation  by  individual  settlers  without  agricul- 
tural skill  and  knowledge,  and  unaided  by  capital.  When 
a  better  economic  organisation  shall  take  place  the  zone 
may  become  one  of  the  best  and  richest  of  that  latitude  in 
any  part  of  the  world.  The  province  of  Tucuman  has  an 
area  of  27,000  square  kilometres,  fiat  in  the  east  and  moun- 
tainous in  the  west,  well  watered,  irrigable  land,  but  only 
140,000  hectares  are  cultivated,  65  per  cent,  with  sugar,  and 
19  per  cent,  with  wheat.  Fruit,  vegetables,  timber  and  live 
stock  production  are  other  industries.  The  production  of 
sugar  is  given  as  2]-  tons  per  hectare,  equal  to  about  one  ton 
per  acre.  The  province  of  Salta  and  Jujuy  cover  an  area 
of  164,000  square  kilometres,  with  a  population  of  only 
250,000  persons,  notwithstanding  the  possibilities  of  the 
region.  On  the  heights  the  mineral  resources  are  unex- 
ploited,  and  the  excellent  mountain  pasture  could  support 
herds  of  live  stock.  Timber  and  fuel  are  plentiful  ;  mineral 
waters  of  therapeutic  properties,  the  equal  of  any,  are  found  ; 
and  in  the  valleys  fertile  lands  with  abundant  streams, 
both  for  purposes  of  irrigation  and  power  abound,  with 
possibilities  for  cultivation  of  the  products  of  the  temperate 
and  sub-tropical  zones.  Grain  and  alfalfa  give  excellent 
returns,  the  sugar  cane  is  prolific,  and  coffee  and  bananas 
are  other  useful  products.  Endeavours  are  being  made  by 
the  government  to  bring  this  region  into  more  rapid  settle- 
ment, and  certain  facilities  are  being  provided,  of  which 
advantage  might  be  taken  by  co-operative  groups.  Railway 
transport  is  requisite,  however,  and  attention  is  being  turned 
thereto  ;  and  this  part  of  South  America  is  capable  of  rapid 
development. 

There  is  a  growing  amount  of  British  capital  employed  in 
the  interior  lands  of  Argentina.  A  company  known  as  the 
Forestal  Land,  Timber  and  Railways,  which  has  been  in 
operation  for  some  years,  acquired  1,250,000  acres  of  free- 
hold timber  land  in  the  Chaco  district,  and  possesses  some 
mileage  of  light  railway  and  cattle  ranches,  also  tanning 


REPUBLICS  OF  RIVER  PLATE— ARGENTINA     i6i 

plants.  The  well-known  quebracho  timber  used  for  tan- 
ning furnishes  a  valuable  article  of  export  from  Argentina 
and  grows  largely  upon  the  estate.  The  reports  of  the 
company  have  shewn  very  considerable  profits  in  certain 
years.  Another  British  enterprise,  the  Argentine  Southern 
Land  Company,  has  also  reaped  good  returns  on  its  capital. 
The  business  includes  live  stock,  wool  sales,  farm  crops, 
alfalfa,  etc.,  and  large  quantities  of  wood  and  m.any  thousand 
head  of  cattle  are  sold.  Some  losses  occurred  from  the 
severe  weather  in  the  Cordillera.  There  are  other  British 
land  companies  engaged  in  stock-raising  and  wool  growing 
in  this  region  owning  valuable  lands.  The  Santa  Fe  and 
Cordova  Great  Southern  Land  Company,  another  British 
enterprise,  has  paid  excellent  dividends,  and  deals  in  large 
herds  of  live  stock.  In  1912,  for  the  first  time  for  many 
years,  the  estate  had  been  free  of  locusts:  large  additional 
areas  had  been  planted  with  alfalfa,  and  five  more  mills 
erected,  and  wheat  and  linseed  were  harvested.  Foot-and- 
mouth  disease  caused  some  ravages  among  the  cattle.  The 
foregoing  enterprises  shew  that  foreign  capital  is  not  neg- 
lecting South  America,  in  matters  of  landed  estates.  Indeed 
the  inducements  to  foreigners  with  capital  to  take  up  land  in 
this  continent  are  very  considerable,  but  it  is  probable  that 
nationalistic  legislation  will  curtail  these  in  the  future. 

A  remote  territory  of  Western  Argentina  which  awaits 
fuller  development  is  the  district  of  Formosa,  and  much  may 
be  expected  of  it  in  the  future.  Agriculture  and  stock- 
raising  are  the  principal  industries,  the  most  flourishing 
centres  of  which  overlook  the  Pilcomayo  and  Parana  rivers  : 
the  region  being  one  of  considerable  economic  independence. 
Extensive  zones  of  desirable  territory  parallel  these  rivers, 
with  favourable  condition  of  soil  and  climate.  Further 
means  of  transport,  however,  are  necessary  to  the  grow^th  of 
the  region,  as  elsewhere  in  this  little  known  part  of  South 
America. 

The  territories  of  Misiones,  the  Chaco,  and  Formosa  are 
all  of  future  importance.  The  Misiones  territory  has,  how- 
ever, a  past  as  well  as  a  future,  the  story  of  the  Jesuit  Mis- 
sions in  early  times  in  South  America,  from  which  it  takes 

L 


i62  CENTRAL   AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

its  name — a  history  full  of  terrible  and  romantic  interest.  The 
Jesuits  came  as  a  result  of  a  request  preferred  to  the  general 
of  the  order  by  Philip  II,  who  was  indignant  at  the  entire 
ignoring  by  the  Spaniards  of  Paraguay  of  the  decree  of  Charles 
V,  declaring  the  freedom  of  all  the  native  races  of  South 
America,  and  was  shocked  by  the  tales  that  reached  him  of  the 
fearful  brutality  of  the  Encomenderos — men  who  were 
licensed  to  reduce  the  Indians  to  submission  and  exact  labour 
from  them.  The  treatment  of  the  aborigine  was  less  brutal 
and  terrible  than  in  Peru,  "  but  it  was  shocking  enough  to 
cause  the  Parani  women  to  strangle  their  children  at  birth 
rather  than  to  rear  them  to  a  hfe  of  suffering."  The  further 
history  of  the  missions  records  the  hostility  aroused  on 
the  part  of  the  Spanish  colonists,  by  the  measures  taken  by 
the  Spanish  sovereigns  for  their  protection  and  that  of  the 
Indians.  The  missions  were  attacked  by  the  colonists 
after  the  Encomienda  system  was  declared  illegal  in  1608, 
and  the  slave-hunters  slaughtered  and  drove  into  slavery 
Indian  men,  women,  and  children  ;  of  whom,  it  is  recorded, 
30,000  were  massacred  and  60,000  sold  as  slaves  in  San 
Paulo.  Many  of  them  fled  into  more  remote  districts,  and 
to-day  the  ruins  of  the  mission  churches  appear  in  the 
jungle,  all  that  remain  of  the  once  fruitful  and  prosperous 
settlements  under  the  Jesuit  Fathers.  "  What  the  territory 
grew  then  it  should  be  able  to  grow  now.  With  wheat  the 
Fathers  had  not  much  success,  as  the  quality  grown  proved 
poor  ;  but  maize,  sweet  potatoes,  mandioca,  sugar,  tobacco, 
and  cotton  were  largely  grown  and  with  very  great  success. 
Vines  were  planted,  and  the  mission  wines  soon  attained 
celebrity.  The  yerha,  from  which  the  so-called  Paraguayan 
tea  was  obtained,  grew  abundantly  in  a  wild  state  ;  but  it 
was  also  cultivated  and  greatly  improved.  Of  vegetables 
and  such  fruits  as  oranges,  dates,  bananas,  and  figs  the  soil 
was  very  prodigal.  Stone  quarries  were  worked  ;  and  for 
a  time  some  copper  deposits  were  exploited  ;  but  these  were 
abandoned  when  the  Jesuits  began  to  realise  that  their  power 
was  feared.  The  Indians  were  employed  not  only  in  the 
fields  and  the  forests,  but  also  as  carpenters,  wood- 
carvers,  stonemasons,  builders,  blacksmiths,  bronze-casters. 


REPUBLICS  OF  RIVER  PLATE— ARGENTINA  163 

instrument  makers,  and  cloth  spinners.  When  the  properties 
were  confiscated  by  order  of  Charles  III,  the  live  stock 
inventory  showed  the  possession  of  111,400  horses,  788,000 
cows,  and  225,000  sheep.  Nearly  150  years  have  elapsed 
since  then,  and  Misiones  is  yet  far  from  having  reached  the 
point  at  which  it  stood  on  the  fell  day  when  the  animus 
against  the  Jesuit  Fathers  was  permitted  to  extend  even  to 
their  noble  work  on  the  banks  of  the  Parana."* 

Thus  it  is  seen  that  the  atrocities  perpetrated  on  the  un- 
fortunate natives  of  the  Parana  valley  were  as  severe  as 
the  happenings  in  the  Amazon  valley  during  the  same 
early  times,  and  of  the  Putumayo  recently. 

The  constant  increase  in  the  speculation  and  sale  of  land 
in  Argentina  reflects  conditions  to  a  certain  extent  similar 
to  those  which  obtain  in  Canada.  In  a  country  possessing 
a  soil  and  climate  adapted  for  the  cheap  and  abundant 
production  of  food  stuffs,  land  inevitably  forms  the  principal 
subject  of  monetary  transactions.  The  "  industrialism  " 
of  European  towns  requires  more  and  more  the  importation 
of  raw  material,  under  present  conditions,  and  this  is  re- 
flected in  land  transaction  in  Argentina.  The  sales  of  land 
in  the  republic  during  the  year  igii  were  given  as  slightly 
under  28,000,000  acres,  whose  value  was  about  ;^35, 000,000  ; 
as  compared  with  29,500,000  acres  and  ;^24,ooo,ooo 
in  1910  :  a  fluctuation  in  area  but  an  increase  in  value. 
In  the  ten  years  of  1902  to  191 1  the  total  sales  of  rural 
property  amounted  to  252,000,000  acres,  whose  value  was 
nearly  ^^193, 000,000  ;  and  the  extent  to  which  the  interior 
of  the  country  is  being  open  up  by  this  land  movement  is 
considerable.  The  average  price  of  land  per  acre  for  the 
whole  republic  in  1902  was  los.  2d.  :  and  in  191 1  £1  4s.  lod. 
This  average,  of  course,  includes  the  large  transaction  in  the 
remote,  cheap  lands  of  the  distant  provinces  ;  the  average 
for  the  Buenos  Ayres  province  being  £4  i6s.  yd. 

South  of  the  River  Plate  and  pampas  regions,  and  below 
the  Rio  Negro  which  roughly  forms  the  dividing  line,  lies 
the  enormous  territory  of  Patagonia,  covering  the  whole 
southern  extremity  of  South  America  as  both  sides  of  the 

•  "  Paraguay  Missions,"  Times  South  American  Supplement. 


i64  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH   AIMERICA 

Andes,  and  in  the  possession  both  of  Argentina  and  Chile. 
The  Argentine  portion  is  by  far  the  greater,  embracing  the 
vast  steppe-hke  plains  which  characterise  the  country  be- 
tween the  Andes  and  the  Atlantic,  a  territory  with  a  total 
area  approximately  of  330,000  square  miles.  Notwithstand- 
ing the  arid  and  often  inclement  character  of  this  region, 
the  valuable  cattle  and  sheep  farming  districts  are  the  seat 
of  growing  industries.  Patagonia  is  a  region  of  much 
interest.  On  the  upper  plains  of  Neuquen  territory  thou- 
sands of  cattle  can  be  fed,  the  forests  yield  valuable  timber, 
and  the  river  is  of  value  for  irrigation.  Towards  the  Cor- 
dillera the  soil  becomes  more  fertile,  and  there  are  some 
mining  districts.  In  the  broad  valleys  vintage  of  some 
importance  exist,  with  the  famous  Jesuit  apple  orchards.  In 
the  territory  of  Chubut  there  are  vast  stretches  of  fertile 
land  and  various  colonies.  The  Welsh  colony  in  the  valley 
of  the  Chubut  river  was  the  first  European  settlement  made 
in  Patagonia,  in  1865,  when  153  families  were  landed,  and  each 
family  received  an  allotment  of  land  from  the  Argentine 
government  on  the  river  Chubut.  For  years,  isolated  and 
almost  forgotten  alike  by  Buenos  Ayres  and  the  home  country, 
the  Welshmen  struggled  on,  but  not  till  twenty  years  later, 
with  the  construction  of  a  system  of  canals  for  irrigation, 
did  the  colony  begin  to  flourish.  At  the  present  time  it 
numbers  about  3,000  Welsh  inhabitants.  The  heads  of 
many  families  are  prosperous  farmers,  and  some  of  them 
have  amassed  wealth.  Rawson,  the  capital  of  the 
territory,  is  connected  by  railway  with  Porto  Madryn,  on 
Bahia  Nueva.  The  principal  cattle  region  of  Patagonia 
is  in  the  department  of  Rio  Gallegos,  and  Port  Gallegos 
bids  fair  to  rival  the  Chubut  port  of  Punta  Arenas.  The 
climate  of  Patagonia  is  less  severe  than  generally  supposed. 
Off  the  coast  of  Patagonia,  some  300  miles,  are  the  Falkland 
Islands,  which  have  been  described  as  one  of  the  dreariest 
of  British  possessions.  Its  characteristics  are  chilly  fogs, 
squalls  of  driving  rain,  stormy  seas,  and  a  landscape  without 
indigenous  trees,  generally  bare  and  often  uninviting : 
solitary  but  for  the  scattered  sheep  and  countless  birds. 
Over  vast  stretches  lies  the  peat,  green  and  wet  or  dry  and 


REPUBLICS  OF  RIVER  PLATE— ARGENTINA  165 

grey,  through  which  quartz  boulders  thrust  their  sharp 
ridges.  For  a  few  weeks  each  year  the  land  is  scented  by 
low-flowering  plants  that  have  escaped  the  sheep ;  the 
"  Pale  Maidens  "  shivering  on  their  slender  steins,  "  vanilla 
daisies,"  the  creeping  "  almond  plant,"  the  lovely  oxalis 
with  its  close  folded  leaves.  Some  2,300  British  colonists 
are  settled,  and  some  hundred  of  thousands  of  sheep  find 
grazing  grounds,  tended  by  the  lonely  and  weather-beaten 
shepherd.  The  Falkland  Islands  Company,  engaged  in 
sheep-farming,  earns  a  profit  on  its  capital.  From  the  sea 
the  islands  are  lov/,  sad-coloured  hills,  defended  by  sharp 
reefs  and  girdled  by  a  belt  of  the  gigantic  seaweed  known 
as  "  kelp  "  :  and  Port  Wilham,  in  the  land-locked  harbour 
of  Stanley,  shows  drearily  in  the  sleet-laden  gales,  which  are 
a  common  feature  of  the  Falkland  climate.  But  Stanley  is 
a  clean-appearing  little  town,  stretching  along  the  south 
side  of  the  harbour,  mainly  wooden  houses  with  red  iron 
roofs,  each  with  its  small  conservatory  and  garden,  and  there 
is  a  general  air  of  prosperity  about  the  place  and  its  inhabi- 
tants. Penguins  and  sea  lions  haunt  the  coast,  and  snipe, 
ducks,  hares,  and  geese  are  abundant  on  the  uplands. 
Excepting  small  government  reserves,  the  whole  of  the  land 
in  the  colony  is  in  the  hands  of  sheep  farmers.  Although 
these  actually  own  little  more  than  the  grazing  rights, 
closer  settlement  is  thus  rendered  impossible,  and  in  spite 
of  the  high  wages  paid  for  labour  there  is  no  opening  for  new 
settlers.  Isolation  and  the  absence  of  competition  have 
exaggerated  in  the  Falklander  both  the  virtues  and  the 
defects  common  to  the  inhabitants  of  backward  communi- 
ties ;  but  they  are  hospitable,  cheerful,  and  law-abiding. 
As  many  as  100,000  sheep  are  boiled  down  annually  for 
their  tallow  in  this  British  colony — yet  in  London  the  price 
of  meat  for  the  poor  still  rises.  The  people  of  Argentina  claim 
the  Falkland  Islands  as  theirs,  and  teach  in  their  schools 
that  the  republic  has  been  wrongfully  despoiled  thereof.  The 
diocese  of  the  Bishop  of  the  Falkland  Islands  embraces  the 
whole  of  the  Pacific  coast  of  South  America,  but  not  Argen- 
tina for  political  regions. 

Mining  in  Argentina  has  not  reached  much  importance, 


i66  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

but  there  are  good  mineral  regions  in  some  of  the  Cordillera 
provinces.  The  lack  of  coal  is  a  drawback.  Great  petroleum 
beds  exist,  a  continuation  generally  of  those  in  Bolivia. 
From  the  mines  in  the  province  of  Catamarca,  shipments 
of  tin  amalgam  from  the  ores  of  that  district  were  made  in 
1912  ;  the  first  commercial  shipment  of  tin  from  Argentina 
that  has  taken  place.  Gold  dredging  promised  at  first 
great  returns,  but  afterwards  proved  a  failure. 

The  life  and  prosperity  of  Argentina  and  the  future  of 
agriculture  depends  greatly  upon  its  railways.  The  railway 
system  of  the  republic  is  the  most  important  in  South 
America,  embodying  more  than  20,400  miles  of  line,  built 
or  under  construction,  as  against  17,000  in  similar  conditions 
for  Brazil.  Taking  Buenos  Ayres  as  a  centre  and  describ- 
ing a  semi-circle  with  a  radius  of  200  miles,  more  than 
twenty-five  lines  are  crossed,  all  converging  upon  the  city. 

The  Argentina  railways  have  been  financed  in  their 
greater  part  by  British  capital,  amounting  to  a  sum  of  more 
than  £200,000,000  sterling.  From  Buenos  Ayres  a  very 
extensive  network  of  lines  reaches  north,  w^est,  and  south. 
These  lines  may  be  divided  into  five  systems,  exclusive  of 
the  Entre  Rios  system  of  Uruguay.  The  Central  Argentina 
railway  embodies  3,000  miles  of  line,  and  stretches  north- 
westwardly to  Tucuman,  serving  the  important  cities  of 
Rosario,  Cordoba,  and  Santa  Fe.  It  is  a  well-built  railway, 
whose  23,000  or  more  shareholders  are  principally  British. 
The  country  traversed  by  the  line,  in  certain  districts, 
will  be  brought  into  greater  productivity  by  irrigation, 
hydraulic  works  for  which  are  being  developed.  Other 
lines  continuing  this  system  give  communication  with  the 
towns  on  the  Bolivian  border.  The  Buenos  Ayres  great 
southern  railway  embodies  somewhat  less  than  3,000  miles 
of  line,  and  covers  the  southern  part  of  the  province,  which 
is  generally  flat  and  uninteresting  in  aspect,  but  highly 
profitable  agriculturally  :  and  in  some  sections  near  the 
capital,  double  and  quadruple  tracks  have  been  necessary 
to  accommodate  the  traffic.  The  line  gives  access  to  various 
seaports,  and  runs  westwardly  towards  the  Chilean  border. 
The  Buenos  Ayres  western  has  some  1,500  miles  of  line  in 


REPUBLICS  OF  RIVER  PLATE— ARGENTINA  167 

operation,  forming  part  of  the  great  network  of  lines  west 
of  Buenos  Ayres.  The  Central  Cordoba  system,  including 
1,200  miles  of  state  railway  north  of  Tucuman,  controls 
about  2,300  miles,  and  the  Buenos  Ayres  and  Pacific, 
which  forms  part  of  the  transcontinental  route,  contains 
some  2,700  miles.  Many  of  these  lines  are  being  lengthened 
and  new  ones  projected,  and  the  mileage  in  the  republic 
is  being  constantly  increased. 

The  principal  Argentina  railways  are  of  different  gauges, 
known  as  broad,  medium  and  narrow,  being  respectively 
5  feet,  6  inches,  4  feet  8|  inches  and  i  metre.  The  broad 
gauge  prevails,  extending  west  in  the  Andean  provinces  of 
Mendoza  and  San  Juan,  and  north  to  Tucuman  and  Santiago 
del  Estero  ;  and  on  the  south  to  Bahia  Blanca  and  thence 
to  Neuquen  and  the  pampas  territory.  The  medium  gauge 
has  been  laid  principally  in  the  coast  provinces  of  Corrientes 
and  Entre  Rios  between  the  two,  wide,  navigable  rivers, 
Parana  and  Uruguay.  The  narrow  gauge  runs  through  the 
central  provinces,  Cordoba,  Catamarca,  and  others,  connect- 
ing them  wdth  the  coast.  The  railway  from  Buenos  Ayres 
to  Valparaiso  is  the  most  interesting  line  in  South  America, 
traversing  the  continent  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific. 
South  America  at  this  point  is  narrow  ;  the  total  distance 
across,  888  miles,  being  less  than  that  from  New  York 
to  Chicago  ;  but  the  two  cities  joined  may  be  regarded 
somewhat  as  the  "  New  York  "  and  "  San  Francisco  "  of 
South  America.  The  line  traverses  vast  plains  covered 
with  crops,  or  with  alfalfa  as  forage  for  the  bands  of  cattle, 
horses,  and  sheep  which  stud  it,  and  reaches  Mendoza, 
in  the  midst  of  the  vine-growing  district,  lying  at  the  foot 
of  the  Andes,  2,500  feet  above  sea  level,  and  650  miles  from 
Buenos  Ayres.  To  the  south  the  line  traverses  further 
areas  of  vineyards  and  cultivated  lands,  until  it  turns  west- 
ward and  begins  to  climb  the  Uspallata  Pass.  At  10,338 
feet  elevation  the  line  traverses  a  tunnel  3,460  yards  long, 
and  the  uninteresting  scenery  of  Argentina  gives  place  to 
the  snowy  slopes  of  the  Chilean  Cordillera,  with  Aconcagua, 
23,080  feet,  and  its  surrounding  snow-covered  peaks.  Upon 
the  western  slope  the  heavier  rainfall  produces  a  more  verdant 


i68 


CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH  A^IERICA 


landscape,  and  crossing  this  the  railway  reaches  Santiago 
and  Valparaiso,  upon  the  Pacific  coast.  The  Trans- Andean 
railway  is  an  important,  international  highway,  but  it  is 
doubtful  if  its  present  gauge  and  capacity  will  be  sufficient 
for  future  developments.  The  line  is  further  described 
in  treating  of  Chile, 


GROWTH  OF  ARGENTINE  RAILWAYS 


^EARS 

LENGTH 

CAPITAL 

PASSEN- 

FREIGHT 

RECEIPTS : 

EXPENSE: 

Kilo- 

Gold 

GERS 

Tons 

Cold 

Gold 

metres 

Dollars 

CARRIED 

Dollars 

Dollars 

1857 

10 

285 

56 

2 

19 

12 

1865 

249 

5,379 

747 

71 

563 

438 

1870 

732 

18,835 

1,948 

274 

2,502 

1.356 

1875 

1,956 

40,990 

2,597 

660 

5,178 

3.009 

1880 

2,516 

62,964 

2,751 

772 

6,560 

3.072 

1885 

4,503 

122,463 

5,587 

3,050 

14,298 

8,616 

i8go 

9.432 

321,263 

10,069 

5,420 

26,049 

17.585 

1895 

14,116 

484,780 

14.573 

9.650 

26,394 

13.846 

1900 

16,563 

530.819 

18,296 

12,659 

41,401 

23,732 

1901 

16,907 

537.759 

19,698 

13.988 

43,866 

24,128 

1902 

17.377 

560,367 

19.815 

14,030 

43,272 

22,975 

1903 

18,404 

572,510 

21,025 

17,024 

53,569 

27,766 

1904 

19,428 

588,018 

23.312 

20,123 

62,558 

33,216 

1905 

19.794 

626,651 

26,636 

22,409 

71.794 

39,396 

1906 

20,560 

671,191 

34,193 

26,716 

82,019 

48,748 

1907 

22,126 

772,769 

41.784 

27,929 

87,970 

54.215 

1908 

23,741 

846,061 

47.150 

32,211 

101,397 

62,036 

1909 

24,781 

898,063 

51,060 

31,089 

104,365 

61,989 

1910 

27,994 

1,042,170 

59.7" 

33,606 

110,941 

65,929 

1911 

30-059 

1,135.715 

67,776 

34,375 

116,782 

71,447 

1912 

31,461 

1,201,757 

73.641 

40.430 

132,059 

82,641 

1913 

32,949 

1,266,855 

82,322 

42.033 

140.113 

87.274 

1914 

33.507 

1,324,090 

75.103 

33.506 

115,107 

78.569 

1915 

33.710 

1,336,313 

67,401 

35,655 

124,216 

78,522 

1916 

33.973 

1,340,504 

64,829 

36,630 

129,517 

84,680 

1917 

33.993 

1,376,688 

57,645 

31,410 

118,502 

88,431 

1918 

33.993 

1,380,808 

59,040 

39,683 

169,383 

128,345 

1919 

33,993 

1,403.863 

70,936 

40,235 

195.158 

144.032 

The  above  figures  (except  col.  2)  are  in  thousands. 


REPUBLICS  OF  RIVER  PLATE— ARGENTINA     169 

For  the  year  1920  the  net  receipts  for  all  railways  were 
$42,128,000  (gold);  the  dividends  about  4.24  per  cent.; 
jtassengers  carried,   82,286,000;    goods,  44,323,000  tons. 

As  regards  national  finance,  for  years  the  position  of  the 
Argentine  budget  has  been  a  difficult  one,  by  reason  of  the 
succession  of  heavy  deficits  which  have  almost  always  been 
apparent  on  the  completion  of  their  fiscal  years.  In  1903 
this  deficit  amounted  to  ;£6o3,ooo,  in  1905  to  £1,173,000,  in 
1909  to  £10,223,000.  For  1920  the  authorised  expenditure 
was  $463,500,000  (paper);  the  Revenue,  $493,000,000 
(paper);  the  Internal  Debt  (1919),  $660,183,000  (paper); 
the  External  Debt,  $275,000,000  (gold).  The  necessity  for 
public  works  and  the  exigencies  of  the  expansion  of  the 
great  national  resources  of  the  country  give  rise  to  heavy 
expenditure. 

The  principal  banks  are  as  follows,  with  the  years  of  their 
estabHshment :  London  and  River  Plate,  1862 ;  London  and 
Brazilian,  1862;  British  Bank  of  South  America,  1863; 
Anglo-South  American,  1888;  Italia  y  Rio  de  la  Plata,  1872; 
Espaiiol  del  Rio  de  la  Plata,  1886;  Frances  del  Rio  de  la 
Plata,  1886;  Nuevo  Italiano,  1887;  Popular,  1887;  Nacion 
Argentina,  1891;  Aleman  Transatlantico,  1893;  Popular 
Italiano,  1899;  Rio  de  la  Plata,  1902;  Credito  Argentine, 
1904;  Provincia  de  Buenos  Ayres,  1906;  Galicia  Buenos 
Ayres,  1905;  Torquinst  and  Co.  Ltd.,  1874. 

The  foreign  trade  of  Argentina  has  increased  very  greatly. 
In  1902  the  total  trade  amounted  to  more  than  £56,500,000, 
and  in  191 1  to  nearly  £140,500,000.  The  value  of  the  imports 
in  1902  were  £20,607,000  and  of  exports  £35,987,000, 
In  1911  these  had  increased  to  imports  £75,362,000  and 
exports  £64,939,500.  In  1920  the  exports  were  $1,007,000,000 
(gold)  and  the  imports  $854,000,000  (gold).  There  has 
always  been  a  surplus  of  exports  over  imports  except  in 
191 1,  when  im.ports  exceeded  exports  by  £10,000,000,  due 
largely  to  the  failure  of  the  maize  crop  in  part  and  the 
railway  strikes.  The  value  of  the  exports  to  Britain  in  1920 
included:  wheat,  £6,300,000;  maize,  £11,148,000;  chilled 
and  frozen  meats,  £25,000,000;   wool,  £775,000. 

The  population  increased  from  4,641,000  in  1901  to 
nearly  8,000,000  in  1920;  the  growth  of  the  cities  being  more 


170  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

rapid  than  the  country.  The  total  debt  of  the  repubHc, 
internal,  external,  and  floating,  increased  from  £89,000,000 
in  the  same  period  to  £109,300,000,  but  decreased  per  head 
of  the  population  from  £19  3s.  8d.  to  £17  los.  id.  The  total 
revenue  per  head  rose  from  £2  i6s.  id.  to  £4  6s.  lod.  ; 
and  revenue  derived  from  taxation  from  £2  8s.  4d.  to 
£3  i8s.  5d. 

The  agricultural  and  pastoral  production  for  1912  reached 
a  value  of  £196,500,000:  forestal  £14,000,000,  mineral  and 
other  £3,000,000;  a  total  of  £213,500,000,  equivalent  to 
about  £3  per  head  of  the  population.  In  1920  the  total 
value  was  $5,517,000,000  (paper). 

Argentina  as  a  manufacturing  country  has  made  con- 
siderable progress,  due  in  large  part  to  a  high  protective 
tariff  which  was  adopted  during  the  closing  years  of  last 
century.  This,  whilst  it  has  served  to  foster  manufacturing 
industries,  had  a  deleterious  effect  in  other  respects,  notably 
in  the  increase  of  the  cost  of  living,  which  rose  more  rapidly 
than  the  rate  of  wages,  with  a  result  that  many  thousands 
of  immigrants  left  the  country.  The  effect  was  markedly 
shewn  in  the  last  decade  of  the  century,  when  out  of  nearly 
a  million  immigrants  for  the  period  considerably  more  than 
one-half  went  away  again,  partly  from  that  cause.  The 
principal  manufacturing  centre  of  the  country  is  Buenos 
Ayres,  where  a  large  amount  of  capital  is  invested.  The 
lack  of  timber,  coal,  and  stone  are  drawbacks  for  the 
country.  The  forests  are  far  from  the  coast,  but  never- 
theless are  being  rapidly  devastated.  Timber  is  brought 
mainly  from  Norway,  and  coal  from  Britain  as  return  cargo 
for  frozen  meat. 

Among  the  foreign  financial  interests  in  Argentina  the 
British  are  the  most  strongly  represented.  It  is  estimated 
that  the  total  amount  of  British  capital  in  the  republic,  in 
one  form  or  another,  approaches  £330,000,000  sterling ; 
as  quoted  on  the  London  Stock  Exchange  ;  principally 
invested  in  national,  provincial,  and  municipal  bonds, 
and  in  banks,  railways  and  industrial  enterprises.  The 
capital  invested  from  the  United  States  represents  perhaps 
one-tenth    of    this    amount.       The   services    rendered    to 


REPUBLICS  OF  RIVER  PLATE— ARGENTINA    171 

Argentina  by  British  interests  since  the  estabhshment  of  the 
republic  have  been  the  principal  factor  in  the  development 
of  the  country,  and  the  nation  is  traditionally  grateful  to 
the  English  people.  The  commercial  and  social  influence  of 
the  British  community  in  Argentina  is  held  to  be  waning 
of  recent  years,  a  certain  apathy  becoming  observable 
among  them,  it  has  been  stated. 

When  Argentina  is  surveyed  from  the  standpoint  of  the 
wealthy  and  handsome  city  of  Buenos  Ayres,  and  the  great 
business  and  industrial  undertakings  of  the  republic,  its 
progress  and  future  seem  to  be  assured.  Yet  it  is  but  a  few 
years  since  the  country  was  on  the  point  of  bankruptcy. 
Its  present  prosperity  has  underlying  it  elements  that  appear 
stable.  Long  lines  of  railways  have  been  built  ;  the  docks, 
of  the  most  modern  kind,  are  crowded  with  shipping,  bearing 
merchandise  of  import  and  export  ;  ocean  steamers  from 
Europe  carrying  both  the  immigrant  and  the  investor.  Lands 
unknown  and  unfilled  before  are  planted  and  harvested, 
or  covered  with  cattle  and  sheep.  In  the  older  provinces 
the  conditions  of  aridity  have  been  met  by  increased  water 
supply,  principally  by  windmill-pumps,  and  great  quantities 
of  agricultural  machinery  have  been  imported.  The  breed 
of  live  stock  has  been  greatly  improved  by  the  introduction 
of  foreign  stock  and  closer  care  ;  and  no  expense  has  been 
spared  in  this  branch  of  industry.  Great  wealth  has  been 
obtained  by  individuals  in  land  speculation  ;  the  successful 
speculators  buying  and  selling  real  estate  time  after  time 
and  reaping  the  increment  resulting  from  their  operations. 
Nor  is  it  to  mere  speculation  that  such  prosperity  is  due. 
The  natural  richness  of  the  pampa  soil  and  the  cheap  foreign 
labour  of  the  Italian  immigrants  have  created  wealth  for 
the  fortunate  Argentine,  in  spite  of  droughts,  locusts,  and 
the  partial  re-emigration  of  the  foreign  labour.  Limitless 
natural  resources,  accompanied  by  inflowing  cheap  labour, 
cannot  fail  to  produce  wealth,  for  the  employers  of  the 
labour  at  least.  The  same  process  is  taking  place  in 
British  America,  in  the  rapid  development  of  Canada,  and 
was  witnessed  in  the  United  States  in  recent  times.  It 
translates  itself  into  terms  of  banks,  railways,  grain-elevators, 


172  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH  AMERICA 

stockyards,  sumptuous  dwellings  for  the  upper  classes, 
electric  lights,  and  ornate  public  buildings. 

The  traditional  policies  of  opposition  and  violence  in 
Argentina  which  were  born  of  long  misrule  by  dictators 
and  revolutionaries  have  been  giving  way  during  the  last 
generation.  Buenos  Ayres  since  1892  has  become  completely 
modernised.  The  republic  emerged  from  the  financial 
crisis  of  1889,  due  in  the  main  to  the  enormous  natural  and 
easily  exploited  resources  of  the  soil,  and  the  country's 
efforts  towards  progress  have  secured  the  sympathy  and 
help  of  the  civilised  world.  The  internal  affairs  of  the 
republic,  concerning  the  relation  of  the  component  states 
with  the  central  government,  whilst  they  still  lack  the 
elements  of  final  stability,  embody  the  broad  principle 
of  a  well-preserved  home-rule  system,  with  a  sufficiently 
safe-guarded  centralisation. 

From  the  sociological  point  of  view  there  are  serious  draw- 
backs to  the  national  prosperity  of  Argentina.  The  wealth 
is  too  much  in  the  hands  of  a  few,  and  notwithstanding  the 
vast  resources  and  importance  of  the  country,  a  large  bulk 
of  the  population  is  hopelessly  poor  and  backward.  Burdens 
of  taxation  press  heavily  on  the  working  classes,  and  in 
years  of  depressions  the  country  loses  thousands  of  its 
population,  v/ho  emigrate  to  escape  the  high  cost  of  living. 
These  conditions  are  the  result,  in  large  part,  of  land  mono- 
poly, reckless  finance,  and  the  abnormally  high  cost  of 
government.  Banking  operations  of  an  unsound  nature 
and  financial  jugglery,  together  with  the  unscrupulous 
use  of  the  country's  credit  for  promoting  schemes  for  the 
benefit  of  monopolists  or  private  companies,  rather  than 
the  public,  have  often  been  responsible  for  these  matters  ; 
which  show  how  far  removed  from  a  just  and  rational 
adjustment  of  affairs  even  the  most  advanced  of  Latin 
American  republics  is.  Probably  the  future  stability  of 
Argentina  will  be  upon  lines  of  more  varied  and  intensive 
development  of  the  soil.  It  was  natural  that  the  system 
of  monoculture,  or  "  bonanza  "  farming,  should  first  have 
absorbed  attention,  but  the  risks  attending  the  system  of 
one  crop  or  product,  especially  in  a  region  subject  to  drought. 


REPUBLICS  OF  RIVER  PLATE— ARGENTINA     173 

and  depending  upon  the  fluctuations  of  the  market,  cannot 
be  permanently  productive  of  good  to  the  community  as  a 
whole.*  A  more  equable  distribution  of  the  national  wealth 
and  possibilities,  a  better  land  system,  a  stricter  adminis- 
tration of  justice,  and  a  more  general  growth  of  education, 
such  as  will  bring  about  the  upraising  of  the  population, 
are  the  necessary  elements  for  the  future  stability  of  the 
enterprising  and  important  republic  of  Argentina.  A  new 
people  have  arisen  in  Argentina,  who  hold  great  oppor- 
tunities for  the  advancement  of  civilisation  in  the  New 
World. 

*  The  foreign  trade  for  1921  shewed  a  very  large  falling  off  from  the 
previous  year — imports  $635, 000,000  (gold),  exports  §672,000,000  (gold) — 
due  to  heavily  overstocked  markets  in  foreign  goods  and  diminished 
demand  overseas  for  national  products,  and  there  were  many  failures. 
The  wheat  crop  for  1922  was  forecasted  at  4,500,000  tons,  over  half  of 
which  would  be  available  for  export.  The  wool  exports  for  192 1  were 
375,720  bales;  of  butter  22,000  tons;  quebracho  extract  124,000  tons; 
hides  4,400,000  tons. 


174  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH  AMERICA 


CHAPTER    V 

THE  REPUBLICS  OF  THE  RIVER  PLATE,  URUGUAY. 
AND  PARAGUAY 

The  Oriental  Republic  of  Uruguay,  as  the  country  is 
officially  known,  from  its  position  on  the  east  bank  of  the 
great  river — it  was  formerly  part  of  Argentina — although 
the  smallest  independent  nation  in  South  America,  enjoys 
peculiarly  advantageous  geographical  and  climatic  condi- 
tions. The  commanding  sea  frontage,  and  position  with 
respect  to  the  River  Plate  estuary  and  the  broad  Uruguay 
river,  give  the  country  almost  the  character  of  a  peninsular, 
and  ensure  a  uniformity  of  temperature  and  a  climate 
which  is  conceded  to  be  one  of  the  healthiest  in  the  world. 
The  important  city  and  seaport  of  Montevideo  is  the 
natural  port  of  call  at  which  all  vessels  arriving  from  Europe, 
or  engaged  in  coasting  trade  first  touch,  and  had  different 
political  conditions  prevailed  in  past  years,  the  growth  and 
prominence  of  the  city  might  have  rendered  it  superior  to 
Buenos  Ayres. 

Uruguay  differs  to  some  extent  in  physical  character 
from  its  neighbour  of  Argentina,  and  territorially  it  is 
diminutive  in  comparison  therewith,  having  an  area  of  only 
72,200  square  miles.  This  area,  however,  is  equal  to  that  of 
the  United  Kingdom.  The  country  is  largely  composed  of 
undulating,  grass-covered  land,  in  the  southern  half  watered 
by  numerous  rivers  and  streams,  partly  wooded,  with  hills 
and  outcrops  of  ore-bearing  rocks.  The  northern  section 
is  more  rugged,  with  low  mountainous  ranges  and  rocky 
ridges,  enclosing  fertile  valleys,  almost  entirely  free  from 
forest.  The  broad  flat  pampas  of  Argentina  are  not 
encountered.     The  broad-flowing   Uruguay   river  encircles 


URUGUAY  AND  PARAGUAY       175 

the  western  side  of  the  country,  rendering  it,  in  conjunction 
with  the  estuary  of  the  River  Plate  and  the  sea,  accessible 
on  three  sides  by  water.  The  river  is  navigable  as  far  as 
Salta  and  Paysandu,  200  miles  from  the  mouth. 

The  population  of  Uruguay  numbers  somewhat  over  a 
million,  composed  principally  of  people  of  European  descent. 
The  Spanish  and  Italian  elements,  more  or  less  pure,  repre- 
sents 90  per  cent,  of  the  total,  8  per  cent,  are  mestizos, 
and  the  remainder  Indians,  with  a  proportion  of  negroes. 
The  increase  has  been  slow,  and  has  owed  comparatively 
little  to  the  immigration  of  recent  years.  In  certain  dis- 
tricts the  vegetative  increase  is  exceedingly  small,  and  in 
others  there  has  been  a  diminution  ;  conditions  brought 
about  both  from  economical  and  political  causes.  Immigra- 
tion in  the  year  1907  furnished  26,000  Italians  and  22,000 
Spanish,  and  somewhat  over  2,000  each  of  British,  French, 
and  German.  The  average  annual  birth  rate  is  about 
thirty-three  per  1,000.  The  death  rate  is  a  low  one,  being 
less  than  fifteen  per  1,000  ;  that  for  ]\Iontevideo  being  des- 
cribed as  the  lowest  of  any  large  city  in  the  world.  The 
republic  has  a  markedly  high  rate  of  illegitimate  births, 
which  is  given  as  32  to  35  per  cent.  The  marriage  of 
parents  automatically  legitimatises  offspring  born  before 
wedlock,  in  Uruguay  law,  and  illegitimate  children  are 
ensured  a  portion  of  the  parent's  estate.  The  average 
density  of  the  population  is  slightly  under  thirteen  per 
square  mile. 

The  system  of  government  in  Uruguay  is  that  of  a  centra- 
lised as  opposed  to  a  federal  republic.  The  country  is 
divided  into  nineteen  departments  or  provinces,  and  these 
into  districts  or  municipalities,  all  under  direct  control  of 
the  central  government.  Each  department  has  an  adminis- 
trative council,  whose  members  are  elected  by  popular  vote. 
The  legislative  power  of  the  republic  is  wielded  by  an  assembly 
of  two  chambers — senators  and  deputies.  The  senators 
are  named,  one  for  each  department,  by  an  electoral  college, 
for  a  term  of  six  years,  one-third  of  their  number  retiring 
every  two  years.  The  lower  house  is  elected  by  proportional 
representation,  at  the  rate  of  one  deputy  for  every  3,000 


176 


CENTRAL   AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 


male  citizens  ;  those  who  can  read  and  write.  The  execu- 
tive power  is  wielded  by  the  president,  who  is  elected  by  the 
assembly  for  a  period  of  four  years  :  assisted  by  a  council 
of  ministers,  whose  departments  are  :  Interior,  Finance, 
Foreign  Affairs,  War  and  Marine,  Industry  and  Labour, 
Instruction,  and  Public  Works.  A  high  court  and  subordi- 
nate courts  constitute  the  judicial  power.  Each  department 
has  an  administrative  council,  whose  members  are  elected 
by  popular  vote,  and  a  governor  appointed  by  the  executive. 

The  condition  of  education  in  Uruguay  is  superior  to 
most  of  the  Latin  American  countries,  ranking  about  equal 
with  Argentina  ;  and  slightly  less  than  50  per  cent,  of 
the  population  are  illiterate.  In  Montevideo  there  are 
excellent  schools,  state  supported,  and  a  university,  but 
throughout  the  republic  generally  education  is  much  neg- 
lected ;  attendance  at  schools  small,  and  the  instruction 
of  an  inferior  character.  There  has,  however,  been  a  ten- 
dency more  recently  to  improve  the  standard  of  instruction. 
Primary  instruction  is  free  and  nominally  compulsory.  As 
regards  religion,  the  Roman  Catholic  is  that  of  the  state, 
but  other  religions  are  tolerated.  The  Press  of  Uruguay  is 
considered  to  be  somewhat  dominated  by  political  influence 
and  subject  to  official  repression,  and  is  stated  to  be  less 
vigorous  and  intelligent  than  during  its  past  history.  There 
are,  however,  a  sufficient  number  of  papers,  generally  well 
produced  and  supplied  with  foreign  news,  with  special 
journals,  as  in  the  case  of  Buenos  Ayres  and  other  capitals, 
for  British,  Italian,  and  Spanish  readers.  The  cost  of  pro- 
ducing a  paper  has  risen  considerably  in  Montevideo,  as 
elsewhere,  of  recent  times.     The  language  is  Spanish. 

The  nineteen  departments  of  Uruguay,  with  their  areas, 
are  as  follows: 


Departments. 

Areas 

Artigas 

•          •  •          • 

.    4.392 

Canelones 

.    1.833 

Cerro  Largo 

•    5.753 

Colonia 

.    2,192 

Durazno    . . 

.    5.525 

Flore s 

•     1.744 

Florida 

•    4.763 

Maldonado 

.     1,584 

Minas 

•    4.844 

URUGUAY  AND  PARAGUAY 


177 


Departments. 
Montevideo 
Paysandu 
Rio  Negro 
Rivera 
Rocha 
Salto 
San  Jose 
Soriano 
Tacuarembo 
Treinta-y-tres 


Montevideo  is  by  far  the  lar 


Areas. 

5.115 
3.269 
3.790 
4,280 
4.863 
2,687 
3,560 
8,074 
3,680 


gest  city  in  the  republic;   its 


population,  including  suburbs,  is  about  400,000;  almost  one- 
third  of  that  of  the  whole  republic.  The  next  towns  in 
importance  are  the  River  Ports  of  Paysandu,  with  25,000 
inhabitants,  and  Salto  with  24,000:  Mercedes  is  fourth  with 
nearly  19,000;  there  are  three  towns,  Rocha,  San  Jose,  and 
Melo,  with  a  population  of  over  15,000,  two  of  12,000,  and 
five  or  six  with  10,000  inhabitants. 

Montevideo,  the  capital  of  Uruguay,  is  one  of  the  most 
pleasing  cities  in  South  America,  largely  due  to  its 
conditions  of  climate  and  general  surroundings.  The 
unfailingly  clear,  blue  sky  and  sunny  days,  and  the  presence 
of  the  sea  and  the  summer-like  temperature  contribute 
in  forming  an  exceptional  environment.  The  temperature 
seldom  falls  below  50°  in  winter,  but  there  are  occasional 
frosty  nights,  and  the  maximum  summer  heat  does  not 
exceed  82°  in  the  shade.  The  city  forms  a  resort  of  the 
people  of  Rio  de  Janeiro  and  Buenos  Ayres,  whose  climates 
are  far  inferior.  The  broad  bay  upon  which  Montevideo 
stands  commands  the  entrance  to  the  estuary  of  the  River 
Plate.  The  harbour  is  a  handsome  one  and  has  been  greatly 
improved  :  a  large  expenditure  having  been  made  upon  new 
docks,  which  were  built  of  the  excellent  native  stone  quarried 
near  at  hand.  The  works  were  carried  out  by  the  govern- 
ment from  the  national  resources,  without  the  aid  of  a 
foreign  loan,  which  was  an  exceptional  circumstance  for 
public  works  in  Latin  America. 

The  population  of  Montevideo  is  numbered  at  400,000, 
including  the  suburbs  of  the  city.  Included  in  the  popula- 
tion are  more  than  40,000  Italians,  and  almost  an  equal 
number  of  Spaniards,   with   5.000  French,  1,000  British, 

M 


178  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 

and  about  800  Germans.  The  architecture  of  the  city 
presents  marked  contrasts,  due  to  the  mixture  of  the  old 
colonial  type  of  house,  of  one  story,  with  modern  lofty 
buildings.  The  small  colonial  type  of  houses,  with  their 
patios  and  quaint  fa9ades,  are,  in  their  way,  not  inferior 
to  the  more  pretentious  structures  of  the  present  time. 
The  topographical  situation  of  the  city  allows  room  for 
expansion,  and  the  conservation  of  its  older  character.  The 
women  and  children  of  Montevideo,  due  doubtless  in  part 
to  their  environment,  have  earned  a  reputation  for  their 
superior  appearance  :  feminine  beauty  between  the  ages  of 
fourteen  and  twenty-five  is  specially  marked,  and  among  all 
classes  a  certain  standard  of  good  looks  and  a  well-dressed 
appearance  is  notable. 

Montevideo  suffers  from  the  common  South  American 
condition  of  high  cost  of  rent  and  living.  Hotel  charges 
and  house  rents  are  high,  and  articles  of  clothing  and  food 
are  double  the  price  of  such  in  Europe.  Fresh  provision  and 
fruit,  which,  in  a  fertile,  temperate  land,  ought  to  be  cheap, 
are  not  sufficiently  so.  The  city  is  well  provided  with  electric 
tramways,  which  extend  into  the  well-built  suburbs  and  the 
picturesque  outlying  districts.  The  systems  are  mainly 
owned  by  British  and  German  capital,  and  the  returns, 
like  those  from  tramways  systems  in  most  Latin  American 
capitals,  are  good,  due  to  the  urban  travelling  habit  which  is 
characteristic  of  the  people. 

The  British  element  in  Montevideo  tends  to  decrease 
numerically,  but  it  embodies  the  principal  financial  and 
commercial  interests,  forming  the  active  representatives 
of  an  estimated  invested  British  capital  in  Uruguay  of 
about  £46,000,000  sterling,  as  quoted  on  the  Stock  Exchange 
of  London.  More  than  half  of  this  amount  is  made  up  by 
investments  in  government  stocks,  whilst  the  railway 
system  of  the  country,  built  in  its  entirety  by  British  capital, 
accounts  for  nearly  £13,000,000,  with  joint-stock  enterprises, 
banking,  shipping,  influence  and  commercial  interests 
completing  the  total.  As  regards  British  commerce,  it  has 
been  stated  of  late  that  this  does  not  hold  its  own  propor- 
tionally with  that  of  other  nations. 


URUGUAY  AND  PARAGUAY       179 

The  principal  industries  of  Uruguay  are  pastoral,  cattle 
being  bred  for  meat  export,  but  sheep  for  wool  alone — the 
meat  being  neglected.  Of  the  wool  about  100,000  bales 
are  exported  annually,  and  the  total  value  of  the  exports 
due  to  the  pastoral  industries  and  its  by-products  has 
given  a  yearly  average  of  about  £7,000,000  sterling.  The 
curing  of  beef  for  the  Brazilian  and  Cuban  markets  accounts 
for  a  large  part  of  the  sum.  The  great  meat  extract  industry 
of  the  Liebig  factory,  where  the  well-known  fluid  beef  pro- 
ducts are  made,  consumes  as  many  as  3,000  cattle  in  a  single 
day  ;  and  the  Liebig  factories  of  Uruguay  and  Argentina 
combined  consume  a  yearly  average  of  250,000  cattle. 
The  scientific  and  hygienic  operations  carried  on  at  the 
Liebig  factory,  in  the  production  of  the  meat  extract,  have 
been  described  as  high-class,  and  the  industry  as  one  specially 
adapted  to  the  pastoral  resources  of  the  region.  It  is  held 
that  the  sunny  climate  ensures  considerable  immunity  from 
tuberculosis  among  cattle  in  Uruguay. 

The  jerked  beef  or  "  charqui  "  is  a  well-known  form  of 
food  in  Latin  America.  The  meat  is  cut  up,  dried  and  salted, 
and  in  this  condition  may  be  transported  for  any  distance, 
and  resists  decay  for  a  considerable  time.  This  food  pro- 
duct was  used  for  maintaining  the  slaves  on  the  South 
American  plantations  in  earlier  years,  but  now  forms  a 
valuable  article  of  diet  for  the  working  population  generally. 
There  are  thirty  establishments  for  producing  "  charqui "  in 
Uruguay,  known  as  "  saladeros  "  ;  and  a  number  in  Argen- 
tina and  Brazil ;  and  the  meat  is  exported  to  Cuba  and  else- 
where. In  the  countries  of  the  Andes,  quarters  of  sheep 
are  similarly  treated  and  form  a  common  article  of  diet  for 
the  working  classes,  and  piles  of  dried  meat  are  observed 
on  the  quays,  the  article  being  handled  like  merchandise, 
without  any  form  of  covering. 

Agriculture  in  Uruguay  is  in  only  a  tolerably  satisfactory 
condition,  and  from  a  deficit  in  bread  stuffs  at  the  end  of 
last  century  the  republic  now  supplies  itself  with  cereals, 
and  exports  a  good  surplus.  Other  foods  are,  however, 
imported.  Uruguayan  lands  are  well  suited  for  cattle- 
rearing,  although  not  for  fattening,  and  notwithstanding 


i8o  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 

that  large  tracts  of  territory  waiting  development  exist, 
only  8  per  cent  of  the  area  of  the  soil  of  the  country  is 
under  cultivation.  Lands  for  farming  are  expensive,  and 
wages  have  risen  very  considerably  of  recent  year.  The 
soil  of  Uruguay  is  very  varied,  far  more  so  than  that  of  the 
immediately  adjoining  parts  of  Argentina.  In  the  southern 
parts  most  fruits  of  a  temperate  cUmate  grow  freely,  and  in 
the  northern  parts  are  found  some  of  sub-tropical  character. 
Scientific  methods  of  cultivation,  however,  are  as  yet  rarely 
employed,  and  it  may  be  said  that  the  agricultural  possi- 
bilities of  the  country  are  hardly  known.  Until  some  ten 
or  fifteen  years  ago,  the  productive  interests  of  Uruguay 
were  exclusively  pastoral,  cattle  being  bred  for  the  meat 
and  hides,  and  sheep  for  their  wool ;  trade  consisting  in 
these  and  other  animal  by-products,  which  constituted 
from  go  to  95  per  cent,  of  its  total  exports.  The  census  or 
estimate  of  the  live  stock  of  the  country,  made  in  1916, 
gave  11,500,000  sheep,  7,800,000  cattle,  555,000  horses, 
and  about  400,000  swine,  mules,  and  goats.  It  is  estimated 
that  there  are  some  14,500,000  hectares  of  land,  equal 
to  about  36,000,000  acres,  worth  on  the  average  from 
£6  to  £7  the  hectare,  appropriated  to  sheep  and  cattle 
raising.  The  value  of  the  exports  of  pastoral  products 
naturally  varies  with  the  seasons.  Sheep,  as  stated,  are 
reared  solely  for  their  wool,  little  or  no  attention  being  paid 
to  their  meat,  but  the  wool  generally  is  of  excellent  quality, 
and  is  mainly  exported  to  France  and  Belgium.  Even 
with  recent  advances,  a  small  part  of  the  soil  of  Uruguay 
is  under  agricultural  cultivation,  and  there  are  large  tracts 
of  excellent  arable  land  still  awaiting  development.  The 
government  is  making  serious  efforts  to  promote  agricultural 
colonisation  ;  several  private  schemes  to  that  effect  have 
also  been  initiated.  The  two  principal  difficulties  are  the 
want  of  fiscal  or  state  lands  to  offer  for  the  purpose,  and 
the  lack  of  organised  agricultural  immigration — the  habits 
of  the  people  not  inclining  them  to  agricultural  pursuits — 
but  neither  of  these  difficulties  are  insuperable.  The  chief 
drawback  to  agriculture  is  a  periodical  recurrence  of  serious 
droughts,  which  occur  almost  regularly  every  six  or  eight 


URUGUAY  AND  PARAGUAY       i8i 

years.  In  a  good  season  Uruguay  can  produce  some  of 
the  finest  wheat,  not  merely  in  South  America  but  in  the 
whole  world.  During  certain  years  "  Montevideo  "  wheat, 
as  it  was  called,  receives  a  special  quotation,  the  highest 
of  any  in  the  European  market,  and  it  is  a  noteworthy  fact 
that  large  quantities  of  Uruguayan  grain  are  bought  by 
Argentine  exporters  to  mix  with  and  to  improve  the  strain 
of  their  own  wheat.  The  amount  available  for  export 
varies  greatly  with  the  season.  Maize,  or  Indian  corn,  is 
also  grown  to  a  considerable  extent  ;  and  other  agricultural 
products  are  linseed,  already  exported  in  small  quantities  ; 
grapes,  from  which  very  tolerable  wine  can  be  made  ; 
vegetables  of  many  descriptions  ;  and  fruit,  chiefly  peaches, 
strawberries,  apricots,  melons,  lemons,  and  oranges.  The 
fruit  and  vegetables  go  in  large  quantities  to  supply  the 
markets  of  Buenos  Ay  res.  The  coasts  and  rivers  of  Uruguay 
are  prolific  in  edible  fish,  some  of  fine  quality ;  but  no  care 
is  taken  for  their  conservation. 

Uruguay  is  a  well-watered  country,  and  the  river  of  that 
name  carries  a  large  volume  of  water  calculated  at  11,000,000 
cubic  feet  per  minute.  The  Negro,  a  tributary  of  the 
Uruguay,  is  navigable  ;  and  afifords  a  valuable  means  of 
communication  to  the  part  of  the  country  traversed  from 
the  fluvial  port  of  Mercedes.  The  other  rivers  are 
navigable  only  for  steamers  of  light  draught.  The  possi- 
bilities for  development  of  hydraulic  energy  on  the  Uruguay 
and  Negro  rivers  are  very  important,  and  recently  have  been 
investigated  by  experts  acting  on  behalf  of  foreign  capitalists. 
A  plan  has  been  proposed  also  for  a  hydro-electric  station 
controlled  by  the  government.  Development  of  the  water- 
power  wiU  to  a  certain  extent  offset  the  lack  of  coal  and  fuel 
in  the  country,  which  is  an  unfavourable  condition  as 
regards  manufacturing  industries. 

The  statistics  relating  to  the  finance  and  trade  of  Uruguay 
are  less  easy  to  obtain  than  is  the  case  with  others  of  the 
South  American  states.  The  estimated  national  revenue 
for  1912-13  was  £7,477,000,  and  expenditure  £7,475,000.  The 
exports  were  valued  in  1912  at  £9,500,000,  and  the  imports 
£9,250,000,   Great   Britain   leading   in   the    import    trade. 


i82  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 

In  1920  the  value  of  the  imports  (official)  was  $48,165,000, 
and  exports  (real)  $80,752,000.  The  imports  are  largely  of 
food  stuffs,  which  is  surprising  in  a  pastoral  and  agricultural 
country.  Ui"uguay,  however,  is  but  a  small  state,  sparsely 
populated.  Her  alluvial  plains  and  mountains  contain, 
however,  great  store  of  unexploited  resources,  and  there  is  a 
good  network  of  railways;  matters  which  would  seem  to 
assure  a  prosperous  future.  The  railways  in  operation  in  the 
republic  have  an  aggregate  length  of  1,535  rniles,  of  which 
1,225  a-re  under  the  control  of  British  capital,  amounting  to 
about  £13,000,000.  The  principal  British  controlled  lines  are 
the  Central  Uruguay  and  its  extensions,  the  Midland  Uru- 
guay, North-west  Uruguay,  and  Uruguay  Northern.  The 
gross  receipts  for  the  financial  year  before  the  War  reached 
£1,250,000,  an  increase  of  £131,000  over  the  previous  year, 
with  net  receipts  of  £564,000  approximately,  but  with  the 
state  guarantees  the  total  net  revenue  of  the  companies 
reached  £708,000,  with  a  return  on  the  capital  of  5I  per 
cent.   These  returns  now  tend  rapidly  to  increase. 

The  economic  development  of  Uruguay  was  for  years 
hampered  by  the  character  of  its  administration  and  by 
revoluntionary  outbreaks.  The  seizure  of  farm  stock  and 
the  impressing  of  the  male  population  for  military  purposes 
tended  to  impoverish  agriculture.  Abroad  the  reckless 
loan-placing  conducted  with  European  financers  ruined  the 
credit  of  the  country  and  plunged  it  heavily  into  debt, 
which  resulted  in  suspended  payments  and  reduction  of 
interest  payable  to  foreign  landholders.  The  administration 
of  justice  suffers  from  the  same  defects  as  in  the  neighbour- 
ing republic  of  Argentina,  and  calls  for  radical  improvement. 
The  government  of  Uruguay  has  long  been  accused  of 
"  socialistic  "  tendencies,  and  it  has  been  stated  that  the 
relatively  backward  state  of  the  country  is  largely  due  to 
this.  This  "  socialism  "  has  principally  taken  the  form  of 
restricting  the  powers  of  foreign  capitalists,  and  of  nation- 
alising public  resources  and  institutions,  and  possibly  may  be 
regarded  as  an  advanced  policy  which  in  the  future  may 
spread  more  extensively  over  Latin  America,  and  which  may 
have  in   it  tendencies  of  a  desire  for  greater  commercial 


URUGUAY  AND  PARAGUAY       183 

independence,  and  so  will  not  be  hastily  condemned,  by 
the  disinterested  economist.  Whilst  blame  has  been  laid  to 
the  administration  of  Uruguay,  in  common  with  that  of 
many  other  Latin  American  republics,  as  regards  heavy 
loan-placing  abroad,  on  the  other  hand  it  is  to  be  recol- 
lected that  foreign  financiers  have  had  their  share  of  blame, 
in  their  willingness  to  take  up  such  loans,  and  often  to  take 
advantage  of  the  financial  straits  of  backward  countries. 
The  administration  has  also  been  accused  of  supporting 
labour  strikes,  but  replies  that  it  is  only  concerned  in  the 
bettering  of  the  condition  of  labour.  The  country  at  present 
undoubtedly  suffers  from  too  much  devotion  to  single  large 
products,  and  requires  a  better  distribution  of  its  industries 
and  resources.  With  the  excellent  climate  it  enjoys,  the 
fertile  land,  all  cultivable,  the  absence  of  noxious  insects 
and  other  plagues— apart  from  the  matters  of  drought  and 
locusts  which  afflict  the  country  seriously  at  times — Uruguay 
must  be  regarded  as  a  land  of  considerable  possibilities, 
capable  of  sustaining  a  population  far  in  excess  of  its  present 
meagre  one. 

PARAGUAY. 

The  third  republic  of  the  Plate,  that  of  Paraguay,  is,  like 
Bolivia,  which  lies  upon  its  northern  frontier,  an  inland 
country,  remote  from  the  coast.  These  two  nations 
are  the  only  communities  among  the  Latin  American 
republics  without  direct  access  to  the  sea.  In  Paraguay 
the  deficiency  is  partly  made  up  by  the  outlet  afforded  by 
the  great  Paraguay  river,  traversing  the  republic  from 
north  to  south  and  uniting  with  the  Parana,  which  forms 
part  of  the  eastern  boundary  of  the  country,  and  so  flows 
to  the  River  Plate.  Asuncion,  the  capital,  is  situated  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  river,  970  miles  above  Buenos  Ayres, 
and  the  regular  lines  of  river  steamers  drawing  ten  feet  of 
water  form  a  direct  means  of  communication  with  the 
Atlantic  ocean.  The  approach  to  Asuncion  is  picturesque. 
After  five  days  of  steamer  journeying  on  the  full-flowing 
river  a  region  of  gorgeous  forests  is  entered,  where  king- 


i84  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 

fishers,  alligators  and  the  Victoria  regia  lily  are  seen ;  a 
fine  avenue  of  approach.  Topographically,  Paraguay  forms 
part  of  the  great  depression  known  as  the  basin  of  Parana, 
whose  western  edge  is  formed  by  the  Andes,  and  on  the  east 
is  bounded  by  the  Brazilian  highlands.  To  the  north  rises 
the  sheer  edge  of  the  Matto  Grosso  tablelands  of  Brazil, 
and  to  the  south-west  is  the  Great  Chaco,  part  of  whose 
vast  and  partly  unexplored  territory  forms  the  western 
portion  of  Paraguay.  This  part  of  the  Chaco  consists 
largely  in  swamps,  forests,  and  jungles,  inhabited  by  uncivi- 
lised Indian  tribes  ;  among  whom,  however,  the  South 
American  Missionary  Society  is  doing  good  work.  Paraguay 
is  bisected  by  the  tropic  of  Capricorn.  The  year  is  divided 
into  two  seasons,  summer  and  winter,  from  October  to 
March  and  April  to  September  respectively,  with  a  mean 
temperature  for  the  first  of  8i°  and  for  the  latter  71°,  and 
an  annual  rainfall,  fairly  distributed  throughout  the  two 
seasons,  of  about  forty-six  inches.  The  area  of  the  country 
is  about  97,700  square  miles.  The  eastern  portion  is  the 
most  thickly  populated  and  important. 

The  Paraguayans  have  as  the  principal  basis  of  their 
population  the  Guarani  Indian  people,  and  the  admixture 
of  foreign  blood  is  less  than  in  any  of  the  other  South 
American  republics.  The  white  element,  as  always,  forms 
the  governing  class,  and  the  official  language  is  Spanish, 
although  the  common  speech  is  Guarani.  The  total  popu- 
lation, including  the  uncivilised  tribes  of  Indians,  is  con- 
siderably under  a  million.  Immigration  is  on  a  small 
scale,  although  it  will  doubtless  increase  as  the  advantages 
of  the  country  become  better  known.  The  total  foreign 
population  is  less  than  20,000,  half  of  which  are  Argentinos, 
but  the  government  is  seeking  to  attract  a  portion  of  the 
immigrant  Italians  of  Argentina  and  Brazil.  The  Para- 
guayans are  a  far  less  energetic  people  than  their  neighbours 
of  Argentina,  and  modern  civilisation  progresses  but  slowly 
at  present.  The  natives  generally  are  poor  and  ill-fed, 
the  common  condition  of  most  of  the  Latin  American  repub- 
lics, and  are  easily  attacked  by  disease.  The  conditions 
of  climate  require  only  clothing  of  a  primitive  nature,  and 


URUGUAY  AND  PARAGUAY       185 

boots  are  only  worn  by  the  upper  class,  as  in  Mexico  and  the 
Andine  countries. 

The  government  of  Paraguay  is  divided  into  the  usual 
legislative,  executive  and  judicial  branches.  The  legisla- 
tive power  is  vested  in  the  congress,  comprising  the  senate 
and  chamber  of  deputies,  whose  members  are  elected  by 
universal  male  suffrage  on  a  proportional  basis,  of  one 
senator  for  each  12,000  inhabitants  and  one  deputy  for  each 
6,000.  The  president  is  the  head  of  the  executive,  and  is 
chosen  by  an  electoral  college  for  four  years,  and  is  advised 
by  a  cabinet  of  five  ministers,  who  are  responsible  to  con- 
gress. The  supreme  court  is  the  high  judicial  authority  ; 
and  the  civil  and  criminal  codes  are  practically  those  of 
Argentina.  The  republic  is  divided  into  twenty-three 
countries  or  "  partidos,"  which  are  subdivided  into  com- 
munes. 

Education  in  Paraguay,  as  is  natural  from  the  political 
history  of  the  country,  is  backward  ;  by  law  it  is  free  and 
compulsory,  but  the  attendance  of  children  at  the  schools 
in  some  districts  is  almost  impossible  under  present  condi- 
tions. As  regards  religion,  the  established  church  is  the 
Roman  Catholic,  but  liberty  for  other  creeds  is  guaranteed 
by  the  constitution. 

The  principal  article  of  cultivation  in  Paraguay  is  a  pro- 
duct peculiar  to  the  country,  the  yerba  mate,  or  Paraguayan 
tea,  whose  growing  and  collecting  forms  the  main 
industry  at  the  present  time.  The  tea  is  well  known 
throughout  southern  America,  especially  in  Argentina  and 
Chile  and  in  parts  of  Brazil,  where  it  takes  the  place  of 
ordinary  tea  and  coffee.  Like  those  beverages,  its  effects 
are  stimulating.  The  leaves  of  the  shrub,  the  Ilex  Para- 
guayensis,  are  stripped,  dried  in  the  sun,  packed  in  sacks, 
and  exported  ;  four  to  five  thousand  tons  annually  repre- 
senting the  export.  The  cost  of  production  is  small,  and 
despite  import  dues  in  Argentina  the  article  is  sold  at  less 
than  the  price  of  tea  and  coffee.  Mate  has  no  injurious  influ- 
ence on  the  digestive  organs,  and  its  action  is  stomachic  and 
laxative.  During  the  war  with  Paraguay,  the  Brazilian 
soldiers  marched  and  fought  day  after  day  without  any 


i86  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

other  sustenance.  There  appears  to  be  nothing  prejudicial 
about  it,  and  scientists  have  praised  it  unanimously,  yet 
while  this  tea  could  be  placed  on  the  market  in  England 
for  6d.  a  pound,  it  is  there  almost  unknown,  being  found 
only  in  herbalists  or  chemists'  shops,  where  it  is  sold  at  the 
price  of  3s.  per  pound. 

A  considerable  portion  of  Paraguay  is  extremely  fertile, 
rich  soil  affording  facilities  for  meadows  and  pastures  which 
are  capable  of  a  varying  agriculture,  such  as  might  render 
the  country  the  orchard  and  garden  of  that  part  of  the  South 
American  continent.  Sugar  cane,  grapes,  tobacco,  cotton, 
coffee,  oranges,  rami  fibre  are  among  the  products  which  are, 
or  should  become,  increasingly  important.  Paraguay  is  an 
ideal  country  for  stock-raising,  and  the  cattle  industry, 
which  comes  next  in  importance  to  the  native  tea,  is  growing ; 
but  both  climate  and  pasture  are  unfavourable  for  sheep 
farming.  The  cattle  are  small,  but  Herefords  and  Durhams 
brought  in  from  Argentina  are  improving  the  breeds,  and 
the  production  of  cured  beef  and  meat  extracts  may  develop 
into  important  industries.  The  estimated  number  of  cattle 
in  the  country  in  1908  was  5,500,000.  Hogs  are  fattened 
on  oranges  at  times  ;  the  orange  groves  yielding  abundantly, 
although  they  are  in  large  part  uncultivated.  In  the  last- 
mentioned  year  nearly  11,000,000  dozen  oranges  were  ex- 
ported, principally  to  the  large  towns  of  the  River  Plate.  The 
forests  of  Paraguay  yield  special  kinds  of  timber  in  abund- 
ance, such  as  the  quebracho,  used  for  tanning,  and  of  extreme 
durability  for  building  purposes.  The  principal  food  of  the 
masses  in  Paraguay  is  maize  and  mandioca.  The  seeds  of 
the  Victoria  regia,  whose  splendid  flowers  abound  on  some 
of  the  Paraguayan  lakes  and  rivers,  also  form  an  article  of 
diet. 

There  are  no  state  or  pubhc  cattle  lands  available  in 
Paraguay,  as  these  are  in  the  hands  of  private  owners,  a  con- 
dition thereby  differing  from  that  in  Argentina.  The  value 
of  cattle  land  is  rising,  and  now  fetches  from  £1,200  to  £3,000 
per  square  league  ;  equal  to  an  area  of  4,635  acres.  Natural 
pasturage  is  abundant,  the  climate  is  ideal,  and  shelter  for 
the  stock  unnecessary,  but  drought  prevails  during  some 


URUGUAY  AND  PARAGUAY       187 

years,  and  is  damaging,  as  in  Argentina,  Brazil,  and  Mexico. 
The  main  source  of  cattle  supply  is  the  Brazilian  state  of 
Matto  Grosso  to  the  north,  where  grown  cattle  may  be 
purchased  at  35s.  to  48s.  per  head  by  the  herd,  and  when 
fattened  for  a  year  and  a  half  on  good  pasturage  sell  to 
local  butchers  or  to  the  "  saladeros  "  at  from  £2  los.  to  £3  los. 
Only  the  lowest  gi'ade  of  stock,  however,  exists  in  this 
part  of  South  America  at  present,  suitable  for  meat  extract 
or  canning,  and  not  for  refrigeration,  and  so  far  the  breed 
has  not  been  improved  with  imported  stock.  There  are  a 
few  "  saladeros  "  in  the  country,  which  at  present  afford  the 
only  market  ;  and  the  canning  and  meat-extract  factory 
has  its  own  herds. 

The  republic  has  few  railways  so  far,  the  principal  line 
being  the  Paraguay  Central,  from  Asuncion  through  Villa 
Rica  to  the  Parana  river.  This  is  to  be  crossed  by  a  train-ferry 
at  Encamacion,  so  connecting  the  line  with  the  railways  of 
Argentina,  and  shortening  the  distance  and  time  of  travel 
from  Buenos  Ayres  to  Asuncion  from  five  days  to  thirty-six 
hours.  The  line  is  well  equipped,  and  has  opened  up  great 
areas  of  valuable  territory. 

Paraguay  has  been  the  subject  of  exaggerated  descrip- 
tions ;  a  common  condition  of  most  Latin  American  countries. 
On  the  one  hand  it  has  been  condemned  as  a  pest-ridden 
and  poverty-stricken  land  of  unbearable  tropic  climate, 
and  on  the  other  lauded  as  full  of  great  possibilities  and 
pleasing  features.  In  reahty  it  is  a  country  of  contrasts, 
like  its  neighbours,  affording  compensating  circumstances 
and  varied  conditions  both  of  nature  and  people.  Asuncion, 
the  capital,  is  picturesque  and  has  certain  advantageous 
features  ;  whilst  much  of  the  country  merits  the  description 
of  a  natural  garden,  where  flowers  and  fruit  run  riot,  even 
around  the  thatched,  mud-walled  huts  of  the  squatters,  in 
certain  districts. 

Asuncion  is  built  upon  a  sandy  plain  at  250  feet  elevation 
above  sea  level,  partly  upon  hillsides  of  pleasing  appear- 
ance overlooking  the  river  and  the  forest  country  of  the 
Chaco  beyond.  The  climate  of  the  city  is  healthy,  if  hot, 
with  a  mean  annual  temperature  of  72°.     Its  streets  are  laid 


i88  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 

out  on  a  regular  plan,  with  some  buildings  of  considerable 
merit,  with  a  large  number  of  rehgious  edifices.  These  latter 
are  reminiscent  of  the  exceedingly  bitter  religious  history  of 
the  country,  the  struggles  between  the  Jesuits  and  the 
Church.  Traffic  is  carried  on  between  the  capital  and  out- 
lying towns  in  most  cases  by  diligences,  some  of  the  roads 
being  tolerably  well  maintained  by  the  government. 

Paraguay  has  suffered  terribly,  during  the  whole  of  its 
independent  history,  from  wars  and  revolutions.  Half  a 
million  of  its  people  were  killed  in  the  war  with  Argentina 
and  Brazil  in  1864.  In  the  year  1912  the  revolutions  in 
progress  were  practically  destroying  the  male  population, 
and  misery  and  desolation  covered  the  land.  Peace  is 
only  secured  by  the  advent  or  triumph  of  stronger  political 
adventurers,  and  the  duration  of  governments  is  short. 

The  prevalence  of  leprosy  in  Paraguay  has  aroused  some  dis- 
cussion of  late,  and  although  it  may  have  been  exaggerated, 
the  disease  is  more  widespread  than  is  generally  recognised 
abroad.  The  danger  from  contamination  is  not  serious  to 
the  traveller  in  general,  although  possibly  more  so,  it  is 
stated,  than  in  Argentina,  Brazil,  Colombia  and  other  South 
American  countries,  where  it  is  also  encountered.  The 
insanitary  mode  of  life  of  the  poorer  classes  and  the  lassi- 
tude of  the  authorities  are  responsible  for  the  propagation 
of  the  scourge,  which  might  assume  greater  proportions. 

Paraguay  was  the  scene  of  an  interesting  experiment  in 
communism  known  as  the  "  New  Australia."  This  colony 
was  established  twenty  years  ago  by  one  WiUiam  Lane, 
who  with  a  little  band  of  Australians  left  Sydney  to  demon- 
strate their  economic  theories  upon  a  grant  of  land  allotted 
them  by  the  government  of  Paraguay.  In  this  colony  there 
were  to  be  no  rich  or  poor,  no  master  or  servant,  but  each 
was  to  work  for  the  community,  and  every  member  of  the 
band,  before  starting,  made  over  to  the  common  fund  all 
his  worldly  possessions.  The  colony  underwent  endless 
misfortunes  but  was  very  generously  treated  by  the  govern- 
ment of  Paraguay,  as  both  the  colonists  and  the  government 
sincerely  believed  the  result  would  have  been  a  success. 
The  land  was  extremely  fertile,  but  remote.     Discontent 


URUGUAY  AND  PARAGUAY       189 

and  disillusionment  soon  arose,  and  although  the  leader 
and  some  of  his  followers  struggled  bravely  on,  the  principle 
which  they  had  set  out  to  demonstrate  was  proved  impractic- 
able, and  disaster  resulted.  Had  the  colony  abandoned  the 
impossible  methods  of  communism  and  set  to  work  on  a 
more  practicable  basis,  valuable  results  might  have  been 
attained,  and  although  the  remnant  of  the  colony  still 
exists  it  is  now  working  on  purely  individualistic  lines.  There 
were  interesting  communistic  systems  in  vogue  among 
the  Paraguay  Indians  in  early  times,  some  of  which  exist 
to-day. 

The  financial  history  of  Paraguay  has  been  a  difficult 
one.  In  1898  the  government  were  unable  to  meet  their 
obligations  with  the  foreign  bondholders,  and  at  the  close 
of  1908  the  total  indebtedness  of  the  republic  amounted  to 
some  £7,500,000.  The  service  of  this  has,  however,  continued 
for  some  years,  and  the  movement  among  foreign  capitalists 
for  the  development  of  railways,  which  has  recently  taken 
place,  may  assist  the  progress  of  the  country,  whose  greatest 
hope  is  in  the  extension  of  agriculture.  The  total  amount 
of  British  capital  invested  in  Paraguay  reaches  the  sum  of 
£3,000,000.  The  national  revenue  for  191 1  was  about 
£679,000  and  the  expenditure  £667,000.  The  value  of  the 
exports  for  1919  was  $14,816,000  (Argentine  gold  pesos), 
and  of  the  imports  $15,836,000. 

Given  a  period  of  political  stability,  the  gradual  develop- 
ment of  Paraguay  may  be  brought  about,  consolidating  the 
portion  of  the  vast,  rich  heart  of  South  America.  The  ex- 
periments in  so-called  Socialistic  governmental  measures 
may  be  observed  with  a  certain  amount  of  interest  by 
foreign  and  South  American  peoples.  A  proposal  was 
recently  brought  forward  by  the  President  to  govern  the 
country  by  a  "  council  of  nine,"  instead  of  the  usual  presi- 
dential executive,  with  a  view  of  eliminating  the  abuses  so 
frequently  resulting  upon  this.  Whether  other  abuses 
might  result  has  been  open  to  question.  It  is  in  the  reason- 
able development  of  the  country's  resources,  in  the  interests 
of  its  people,  that  true  progress  will  be  secured. 


igo  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 


CHAPTER    VI 
THE    REPUBLICS    OF   THE   ANDES— PERU 

The  countries  of  the  Pacific  side  of  South  America  are 
marked  out  for  distinction  by  the  mighty  Andes,  one  of  the 
greatest  topographical  features  of  the  earth's  surface.  The 
great  Cordillera,  which  parallels  the  coast  of  South  America 
for  its  entire  length  of  4,000  miles,  is  the  main  source 
of  wealth  and  utility  of  the  dominion  which  it  overlooks ; 
which  it  fertilises  from  its  snows  and  enriches  with  its 
minerals.  The  Andes  of  Ecuador,  Peru,  Bolivia  and  Chile 
appeal  to  the  imagination  of  the  traveller  and  stimulate  the 
mind  of  the  inhabitant.  They  are  at  the  same  time  a  mighty 
engine,  carrying  out  the  atmospheric  and  hydraulic  functions 
of  nature  of  a  whole  continent,  a  storehouse  of  resources, 
a  thing  of  beauty  and  mystery.  The  "  treasures  of  the 
snow  "  are  translated  into  terms  of  corn,  wine  and  oil,  of 
meats,  drink,  and  clothing,  upon  the  great  lands  upon  its 
base  on  both  sides ;  which  are  enjoyed  by  the  dwellers  in 
countries  far  afield,  even  across  the  seas.  No  other  mountain 
range  of  the  world  equals  the  Andes  in  magnitude,  nor  is 
likely  to  be  of  greater  service  to  mankind,  as  it  is  learned 
more  fully  to  develop  the  resources  of  the  earth.  The 
Andes  are  replete  with  strange  and  curious  things,  phenomena, 
effects,  and  conditions,  many  of  which  are  still  unstudied. 

Peru,  above  all  the  lands  of  South  America,  stands  out  for 
its  romantic  history  and  strongly  marked  topography. 
Its  past  has  been  mightier  than  its  present  ;  the  glamour 
of  the  Conquistadores  still  enshrouds  it ;  the  fallen  temples 
of  the  old  Incas,  the  mystery  of  its  great  mountains,  deserts,- 
and  valleys,  its  unknown  rivers  and  unexplored  forests, 
its  fabulous   wealth  of  mines,  and  the  vast  expanses    of 


THE    REPUBLICS    OF    THE    ANDES— PERU      191 

uninhabited  territory  are  fraught  with  possibilities  for  the 
adventurous,  and  never  fail  to  appeal,  even  to  those  to 
whom  this  strange  land  is  little  more  than  a  name. 

The  western  side  of  the  South  American  continent  thus 
presents,  topographically,  a  marked  contrast  with  the 
eastern  side  ;  and  the  four  republics  occupying  the  region : 
of  Peru,  Chile,  Ecuador,  and  Bolivia,  fall  into  a  natural 
group,  having  much  in  common  as  regards  their  physical 
conditions.  These  conditions  have  induced  a  certain 
similarity  in  the  composition  and  social  regimen  of  the 
people,  except  that  Chile  varies  in  its  national  characteristics 
from  the  other  republics  who  share  the  Pacific  slope  and 
Andean  highlands. 

The  predominating  natural  feature  of  the  region — the 
Andes — has  determined  in  the  main  the  formation  and 
climatic  conditions  of  the  littoral,  and  has  created  the  long, 
dry,  narrow  zone  of  the  Pacific  slope,  which  parallels  the 
mountain  chain,  extending  throughout  the  whole  seaboard 
of  Peru  and  a  great  part  of  Chile  ;  forming  a  coast  arid, 
rainless,  treeless,  and  almost  without  vegetation,  except 
that  grown  under  artificial  irrigation.  Beheld  from  the 
sea,  the  Pacific  littoral  unfolds  to  the  view  as  a  series  of 
deserts,  some  of  the  most  sterile  upon  the  earth's  surface  ; 
intersected  at  wide  intervals  by  valleys  and  rivers  which 
descend  from  the  Cordillera,  from  eighty  to  a  hundred  miles 
distant.  The  valleys  are  irrigated  and  cultivated  from 
these  torrential  rivers,  and  in  these  oases  are  situated  the 
principal  towns  of  the  coast,  adjacent  generally  to  the  sea- 
ports. 

The  phenomenon  of  the  absence  of  rain  upon  this  coast 
zone,  more  than  2,000  miles  long,  and  the  consequent  lack 
of  vegetation,  is  due  to  the  interception  and  "  blanketing  " 
of  the  trade  winds  from  the  east  by  the  Andes,  the  moisture 
held  in  suspension  being  deposited  on  the  summit  of  the 
Cordillera,  in  the  form  of  snow  and  rain,  and  failing  to  reach 
the  coast.  A  further  circumstance  influencing  the  climate 
of  the  littoral  is  the  Humboldt  or  Peruvian  current,  a  great 
body  of  water  cooler  than  the  surrounding  sea,  which  sweeps 
up  the  coast  from  the  south  ;    its  lower  temperature  pre- 


192  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

venting  the  evaporation  of  the  sea  water.  A  certain  amount 
of  moisture  is,  however,  afforded  to  the  coast  lands  by  the 
heavy  mist  which  at  certain  seasons  hes  upon  the  coast, 
and  which  gives  rise  to  a  sUght  drizzle,  known  as  garua. 
This  mist-drizzle  is  sufficient  to  wet  the  pavements  and 
chill  the  atmosphere  in  Lima  and  the  coast  towns,  and 
to  stimulate  the  growth  of  the  vegetation  on  the  foothills 
at  certain  seasons,  bringing  forth  a  crop  of  herbage  and  wild 
flowers,  upon  which  cattle  feed.  The  lack  of  rainfall,  which 
renders  the  coast  of  Peru  arid,  carries  with  it  certain  com- 
pensating circumstances,  of  comparative  freedom  from 
fevers  and  other  tropical  disorders,  which  afflict  the  seaports 
of  Peru  to  a  far  less  extent  than  is  the  case  with  Ecuador, 
to  the  north.  Light  malaria,  or  paludismo,  is  common, 
but  yellow  fevers  and  plague  rare.  The  coast  of  Ecuador 
lies  beyond  the  influence  of  these  climatic  agencies  of  Peru, 
and  is  covered  with  dense,  tropical  vegetation ;  and 
Guayaquil,  the  principal  seaport  of  the  repubhc,  suffers 
seriously  from  yellow  fever  and  the  other  scourges  which 
attack  tropical  seaports,  and  will  continue  so  to  do  until 
sanitary  science  is  brought  to  bear  upon  them.  The 
temperate  condition  of  climate,  and  the  comparative 
immunity  from  diseases  of  this  character  in  Peru  and  Chile, 
are  noteworthy  when  comparison  is  made  with  places  in  the 
same  latitude  on  the  Atlantic  side  of  the  continent.  Thus, 
Lima,  the  capital  of  Peru,  with  an  average  temperature  of 
66°  F.,  lies  almost  upon  the  same  parallel  as  Bahia,  the  hot, 
unhealthy  seaport  of  Brazil,  with  an  average  of  yy°  ;  and 
Iquique  is  near  the  latitude  of  Rio  de  Janeiro,  which  formerly 
was  a  hotbed  of  yellow  fever. 

The  long  bare  coast  of  Peru  stretches  for  vast  distances 
between  the  few  havens  of  the  seaports,  surf-beaten  under 
a  blue  sky ;  the  sand  dunes,  escarpments,  and  barren  slopes 
extending  away  far  inland.  Here  and  there  the  promon- 
tories and  islands  appear  as  covered  with  snow,  the  accumu- 
lation of  guano  from  the  palmipeds,  the  alcatraz,  the  gaviota, 
and  other  guano-producing  birds  who  at  times  are  seen 
in  myriads  flying  low  like  a  darkening  cloud  upon  the  face 
of  the  water,   and  which   are  the  source  of  considerable 


THE  REPUBLICS  OF  THE  ANDES— PERU  193 

wealth  to  the  country.  Millions  of  cormorants  inhabit  these 
silent  stretches  of  coast,  their  presence  undisputed  by  the 
few,  scattered  habitations.  In  the  rocky  bays  and  islets, 
sharks  and  honitos  in  large  numbers  exist,  and  the  bleating 
of  the  seals,  or  "  lobos  del  mar,"  is  heard ;  and  quantities  of 
these  are  seen  in  their  peculiar  haunts.  The  Indian  fisher 
with  his  net  is  the  only  human  figure  to  be  encountered  for 
vast  distances,  as  the  traveller  pursues  his  way  on  horse- 
back along  the  edge  of  the  Peruvian  shore. 

The  coast  of  Peru  holds  surprises  in  this  barrenness  for 
the  traveller  who  has  pictured  a  region  of  tropical  vegetation. 
There  is  not  a  tree  except  in  the  oases  formed  by  the  river 
valleys  which  intersect  the  deserts,  where  the  green  fohage 
of  the  algarrobo  trees  and  willows,  and  in  some  regions  the 
oUves,  with  the  alfalfa  plantations,  fruit  gardens,  fields 
of  maize,  cotton,  and  broad  stretches  of  sugar  cane,  extend- 
ing to  the  foothills,  prove  the  fertility  of  the  coast  lands 
under  irrigation.  The  deserts  are  often  peculiar  in  character, 
and  in  some  places  the  singular  phenomenon  of  the  medanos 
is  encountered,  as  between  Arequipa  and  the  coast.  These 
medanos  are  isolated  dunes  or  hillocks  of  sand,  of  a  uniform 
crescent  shape,  varying  from  a  few  to  twenty  feet  in  height, 
having  the  convex  face  towards  the  prevailing  wind  and  an 
inner  vertical  side.  The  dunes  are  set  in  slow  motion  when 
the  wind  blows,  by  the  change  of  position  of  the  sand  par- 
ticles, the  symmetrical  form  being  preserved  on  their 
slow  "  march  "  across  the  desert ;  and  at  certain  states 
of  the  atmosphere  they  give  forth  a  peculiar  musical  noise, 
not  unlike  a  distant  drum,  caused  by  the  eddying  motion 
of  the  sand  particles.  In  some  instances  in  the  foothills 
there  is  a  certain  amount  of  wild  vegetation,  as  mentioned, 
fertihsed  by  the  mists,  and  a  growth  of  flowers  during  the 
misty  season  ;  but  elsewhere  there  are  areas  of  barren  sand. 
In  the  south  of  Peru  the  ravages  of  tidal  waves  following 
on  earthquakes  are  visible,  and  old  sugar-cane  plantations 
which  were  inundated  and  destroyed. 

These  vast  expanses  of  open  coast  are  attractive  in  their 
solitude,  and  possess  their  own  unique  beauty,  lying  under 
a  generally  cloudless  sky,  and  washed  by  the  blue  waves  of 

N 


194  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 

the  Pacific,  whose  long  rollers,  uninterrupted  for  thousands 
of  miles,  throw  up  flotsam  and  jetsam  proceeding  perhaps 
from  the  coasts  of  Asia  and  Australia.  Upon  this  coast 
may  have  stranded  prehistoric  junks  from  China,  and 
indeed  there  are  traditions  of  such  happenings.  From  the 
sea  the  Inca  chasquis,  the  swift  runners  of  the  early  Peruvian 
Emperor,  bore  up  baskets  of  fish  so  swiftly  that  it  was 
carried  fresh  into  Cuzco  for  the  royal  table.  Cuzco  lies  far 
beyond  the  mountains,  the  maritime  Cordillera,  whose 
serrated  edge  appears  far  off,  flat  against  the  horizon,  the 
valleys  and  canyons  unmarked  in  the  distance.  But  with 
the  exception  of  the  mountain  of  Ancachs,  in  the  north, 
known  as  the  Huascaran,  whose  high,  snowy  summit  is 
seen  occasionally  from  the  steamer's  deck,  the  snow-capped 
peaks  of  the  Cordillera  are  not  visible  from  the  coast,  as  is 
the  case  in  Chile.  The  name  Ancachs,  in  the  Quechua 
language  of  the  Peruvian  Indian,  means  "  blue,"  and  is 
applied  to  one  of  the  great  provinces  of  the  north. 

If  the  junks  of  prehistoric  Asiatics  did  reach  the  Peruvian 
coast,  and  gave  rise  to  tribes  of  more  or  less  civilised  coast 
peoples,  it  must  have  been  in  the  very  remote  past.  The 
ancient  ruins  of  the  Chimus  and  others,  the  considerable 
burying  places  and  mummy  cellars  of  the  old  coast  peoples, 
reveal  pottery  of  the  most  exquisite  workmanship  :  handi- 
work such  as  long  periods  must  have  been  required  to 
evolve.  Along  the  northern  coast  from  Tumbez  it  was 
that  Pizarro  and  his  band  struggled  so  painfully,  with 
repeated  disappointments  and  famine.  It  was  at  that 
place  that  the  giant  Pedro  de  Candia  leapt  ashore  alone 
from  a  caravel,  in  view  of  an  Inca  town,  with  a  great  wooden 
cross  in  one  hand  and  a  sword  in  the  other,  exclaiming 
that  he  would  explore  yonder  valley  and  town  or  die.  And 
from  that  inhospitable  coast  Pizarro  and  his  men  ascended 
the  toilsome  Cordillera,  up  rock-hewn  steps  and  impossible 
trails  which  had  never  before  known  the  tramp  of  a  horse's 
hoof  ;  away  to  Cajamarca,  lying,  like  Cuzco,  far  beyond  the 
blue  serrated  edge  of  the  great  mountains  which  arose  on  the 
eastern  horizon — a  mysterious  curtain  stretched  between 
the  sea  and  the  stronghold  of  an  unknown  potentate,  to 


THE    REPUBLICS    OF    THE    ANDES— PERU      195 

whom  battle  must  be  given,  according  to  the  law  and 
devoir  of  that  ocean  chivalry.  The  associations  of  this 
old  land  for  the  traveller  hold  much  that  is  romantic  and 
unique. 

If,  therefore,  from  the  steamer's  deck  the  coast  of  Peru 
seems  to  present  an  arid  and  uninviting  appearance,  the 
impression  is  lost  upon  entering  the  country.  The  topography 
of  the  hinterland  is  peculiar,  and  the  littoral  is  in  reality 
the  seat  of  some  of  the  largest  towns,  where  the 
Europeanised  civilisation  has  taken  root,  and  of  consider- 
able agricultural  wealth  and  prosperity.  The  very  extensive 
regions  of  the  Pacific  littoral  and  Andean  highlands  contain 
matters  of  interest  and  profit  equal,  in  their  particular 
sphere,  to  that  of  the  Atlantic  side  of  the  continent. 
The  mineral  wealth  is  a  permanent  lure  to  foreign  capital, 
and  the  archaeological  field  attracts  an  increasing  number  of 
students.  The  stupendous  mountain  ranges  and  unclimbed 
snowy  peaks  of  Peru  and  Bolivia  are  a  source  of  interest  for 
the  adventurous  traveller,  as  are  the  great  unexplored  and 
unsettled  regions  lying  upon  the  eastern  slopes  of  the 
mountains,  beyond  the  summits  of  the  Cordillera,  where 
stretches  the  lake  basin  of  Titicaca,  and  the  great  territory 
drained  by  the  headwaters  of  the  many  streams  which  form 
the  affluents  of  the  Amazon. 

The  great  mountain  system  of  the  Andes  in  Peru,  running 
south-east,  consists  broadly  in  three  main  chains  or  Cor- 
dilleras. The  two  western  chains,  parallel  and  relatively 
near  each  other,  are  of  similar  geological  origin,  and  the  great 
eastern  chain,  which  rises  from  the  basin  of  the  Amazon,  is 
distinct  therefrom.  The  three  chains  are  known  respectively 
as  the  western  or  Maritime  Cordillera,  the  Central  Cordillera, 
and  the  Cordillera  Real,  or  main  Andes.  On  the  western 
chains  are  many  volcanoes  and  thermal  springs,  and  the 
valley  between,  and  the  cold,  loity  punas  or  plateaux  contain 
the  Alpine  lakes  which  are  the  sources  of  the  coast  rivers  ; 
and  the  inland  drainage  basin  of  Titicaca.  The  Maritime 
Cordillera  contains  a  number  of  high,  snowy  peaks,  in  Peru 
and  Tarapaca,  of  striking  and  even  sublime  aspect,  like 
the  colossal  uplifts  of  Ecuador.     There  is  a  chain  of  volcanic 


196  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 

peaks  overlooking  Tarapaca,  and  further  north  the  Misti 
volcano  which  overhangs  Arequipa  ;  but  the  volcanoes 
are  generally  quiescent.  The  Cordillera  Nevada  of  Ancachs 
contain  a  series  of  splendid  snowy  peaks,  and  during  the 
rainy  season,  from  October  to  May,  their  magnificence  is 
well  displayed,  for  the  sky  is  clear  at  dawn.  Of  Peruvian 
peaks  Lirima  rises  19,128  feet  above  sea  level ;  Tocora  19,741 
feet,  the  Misti  20,013  feet,  Sara  Sara  19,500  feet  ;  Huas- 
caran  22,051  feet,  and  Huandoy  21,088  feet.  The  Central 
Cordillera  forms  the  water-parting  of  the  Andean  system, 
with  more  than  twenty  coast  streams  rising  therein,  and  only 
one — the  Maraiion — breaks  through  it,  flowing  to  the  Amazon. 
The  coast  streams  have  broken  their  way  coastward  through 
the  Maritime  Cordillera.  The  geological  formation  of  the 
Central  chain  is  mainly  that  of  crystalline  and  volcanic 
rocks,  on  each  side  of  which  sedimentary  and  metamorphic 
rocks  stand  up  in  vast  serrated  strata,  partly  of  Jurassic 
age.  Enormous  fossils,  great  ammonites,  are  encountered  in 
the  limestone  strata  at  elevations  of  more  than  14,000  feet. 
The  Eastern  Cordillera  in  the  southern  part  of  Peru,  and  on 
the  border-,  of  Bohvia,  of  silurian  formation,  is  of  magnificent 
aspect.  Llampu,  or  Sorata,  reaches  21,709  feet,  and  Illimani 
21,014  feet.  These  great  uplifts  are  fossiliferous  to  their 
summits.  Talcose  and  clay  slates  constitute  a  large  part 
of  the  formation  of  the  range,  with  eruptions  of  granitic 
rocks  and  numerous  quartz  veins,  and  the  whole  chain  is 
richly  gold-bearing.  It  differs  from  the  Maritime  Cordillera 
in  the  lack  of  volcanoes.  The  enormous  river  system  of 
Peru  has  its  birth  in  these  ranges,  the  eastern  range  being 
cut  through  by  six  great  rivers  :  the  Maranon,  the  Hual- 
laga,  the  Perene,  the  Mantaro,  the  Apurimac,  the  Vilcamayo, 
and  the  Paucartambo  ;  the  last  five  of  which  are  tributaries 
on  the  broad  Ucayali,  one  of  the  main  affluents  of  the 
Amazon  in  Peru.  These  rivers  break  through  the  chain  in 
deep  canyons,  or  pongos,  of  remarkable  form,  all  flowing 
north- westwardly  in  the  deep  valleys  paralleling  the 
Cordillera,  to  where  they  turn  to  theeast  to  form  the  Amazon. 
There  is  perhaps  no  hydrographic  system  in  any  continent 
so  remarkable  as  that  of  the  Andes  and  the  Amazon  in  Peru. 


THE    REPUBLICS    OF    THE    ANDES— PERU     197 

The  area  of  Peru  is  variously  estimated  between  440,000 
and  480,000  square  miles,  or  including  Tacna  and  Arica, 
and  certain  disputed  territories  in  the  Amazon  valley, 
677,000  square  miles.  The  three  great  zones  into  which  the 
surface  of  Peru  is  thus  naturally  divided  are  known  as  the 
Costa,  or  coast,  the  Sierra,  or  mountain  region,  and  the 
Montana,  or  forest  region.  The  first  is  1,400  miles  in  length, 
by  eighty  to  one  hundred  wide,  and  the  second  somewhat 
longer,  with  a  width  of  about  250  to  300  miles.  The  third 
region  has  an  irregularly  shaped  boundary  line  with  Brazil, 
Bolivia,  Ecuador,  and  Colombia,  parts  of  which  are  in 
dispute  ;  and  it  embodies  two-thirds  of  the  whole  area  of 
the  repubhc.  The  three  regions  offer  very  diverse  condi- 
tions of  climate  and  products  ;  and  the  classes  of  inhabi- 
tants which  occupy  them  vary  equally.  The  topography 
of  Peru  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  of  any  country  in  the 
world  ;  and  each  of  the  three  regions  forms  in  effect  a 
world  of  its  own,  and  the  inhabitants  of  one  adapt  them- 
selves with  difficulty  to  the  climatic  condition  of  the  other. 
They  are  remote  from  each  other,  and,  as  regards  the  hinter- 
land, of  difficult  access.  The  great  areas  of  territory 
lying  upon  and  to  the  east  of  the  Andes,  broken  and  diver- 
sified, with  a  temperature  and  flora  varying  from  the 
Arctic  to  the  tropical,  are  veritable  storehouses  of  natural 
wealth,  a  region  of  incalculable  value  for  the  future,  which 
will  be  enjoyed  by  a  generation  that  shall  have  learned 
to  approach  it  with  efficient  means  of  transport.  At 
present  the  Latin  American  civilisation  and  government 
of  the  repubUcs  which  control  them  is  but  feebly  exercised 
therein.  The  uplands  are  inhabited  by  the  Christianised 
Cholos  and  Indians,  and  a  meagre  ruling  class  of  mestizos, 
inhabiting  towns  of  Spanish  American  character,  whose 
amenities  decrease  in  proportion  with  their  distance  from 
the  coast.  The  forests  are  the  abode  of  uncivilised  Indians, 
who  come  within  the  regimen  which  obtains  in  the  Amazon 
vaUey,  and  have  been  more  fully  dealt  with  in  the  chapter 
devoted  thereto. 

The  inhabitants  of  Peru,  like  those  of  Ecuador,  Bolivia, 
and  their  neighbours,  are  composed  of  the  three  classes ; 


198  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 

the  whites,  the  mestizos,  and  the  Indians.  The  white  people, 
although  the  ruling  class,  are  comparatively  few  in  number, 
generally  calculated  at  10  to  15  per  cent,  of  the  popula- 
tion, but  are  less  if  a  sharp  dividing  line  be  drawn.  More 
than  half  the  population  of  Peru  are  pure  Indians  ;  and  the 
Indian  element  even  more  largely  predominates  in  Bolivia 
and  Ecuador.  The  mestizos  in  Peru  number  35  per  cent, 
of  the  total,  and  a^  greater  proportion  in  the  other  two 
countries.  They  form  the  active  working  element  of  the 
Andean  republics  and  constitute  the  basis  of  the  Spanish 
American  race,  and  must  in  time  absorb  both  the  whites  and 
Indians.  The  white  Peruvians  are  the  more  intellectual  class 
and  form  the  professional  and  governing  element.  The  total 
population  of  Peru  is  given  at  the  last  census  as  4,600,000; 
that  of  Bolivia  and  Ecuador  very  much  less.  The  Indians 
of  Peru  and  the  adjoining  Andean  republics  are,  as  already 
indicated,  of  two  distinct  kinds :  the  Cholos  of  the  uplands, 
who  are  the  descendants  of  the  Quechuas  and  Aymaras, 
the  original  population  of  the  Inca  empire,  and  the  forest 
Indians,  known  as  Chunchos,  barbaros  or  salvajes;  a  term 
varied  by  that  of  iiifieles  in  Ecuador  and  Colombia.  Probably, 
however,  there  is  no  fundamental  difference  of  race  between 
the  highland  and  forest  Indians.  The  Cholos  are  little  mixed 
with  Spanish  blood,  but  merge  into  the  mestizo  class  in  the 
highlands.  They  are  Hispanicised  and  Christianised,  gener- 
ally understanding  the  Spanish  language  and  worshipping 
in  the  Roman  Catholic  faith:  a  hardy,  valuable  race,  and 
the  future  of  the  great  territories  of  the  Andean  uplands, 
as  regards  labour,  depends  upon  them.  These  people  have, 
in  Peru,  Bolivia,  and  elsewhere,  suffered  severely,  and  still 
suffer,  at  the  hands  of  the  white  man;  the  conditions  of 
their  life  in  general  are  unworthy  of  the  administration  of 
Europeanised  republics;  and  since  the  overthrow  of  their 
native  rulers  at  the  time  of  the  Spanish  Conquest  they  have 
greatly  deteriorated. 

The  negro  and  Asiatic  elements  in  Peru  are  small,  and 
are  estimated  at  about  4  per  cent,  each  of  the  total  popula- 
tion. The  negroes  rarely  leave  the  warm  coast  regions,  but 
the  Asiatics,  represented  principally  by  the  few  Chinamen, 


THE    REPUBLICS    OF    THE    ANDES— PERU     199 

settle  in  the  upland  towns  and  engage  in  trade,  generally 
that  of  petty  shopkeeping,  in  which  their  usurious  talents 
bring  them  success.  The  Japanese  are  being  officially 
encouraged  to  settle  in  the  Montana  region  as  agriculturists, 
as  they  show  a  certain  adaptabihty  ;  and  they  have 
also  been  imported  for  employment  on  the  sugar  planta- 
tions of  the  coast,  where  they  are  preferred  to  the  native 
labour,  both  by  reason  of  their  steadier  or  more  servile 
habits,  and  as  earning  lesser  pay.  The  negroes  were  early 
introduced  as  slaves  on  the  sugar  plantations,  and  all  the 
heavier  manual  labour  was  done  by  the  Africans  until  1855, 
when  slavery  was  abohshed.  Like  the  Brazilian  slaves  in 
later  times,  on  obtaining  their  freedom  they  deserted  the 
plantations  for  the  towns.  The  beginning  of  the  suppres- 
sion of  slavery  took  place  in  1849,  and  the  sugar  estates 
thereupon  imported  Chinese  coolies  to  supply  the  failing 
source  of  black  labour,  but  these  Chinese  immigrants  were 
treated  with  great  cruelty ;  and  due  only  to  resulting 
scandals  was  their  hard  lot  bettered.  Slave  raids  were  also 
made  by  the  Peruvians  upon  the  distant  Pacific  Islands, 
many  of  which  lost  large  portions  of  their  population,  the 
natives  being  carried  away  to  furnish  labour  for  the  working 
of  the  guano  deposits.  The  admixture  of  the  negro  and  the 
Indian  has  resulted  in  a  type  known  as  Zambos  ;  and  the 
progeny  of  the  Asiatic  and  the  Indian  is  also  distinct. 
The  Chinaman  is  soon  at  home  among  the  Cholos  of  the 
interior,  and  there  is  no  repugnance  on  the  part  of  the  women 
to  mating  with  him.  The  ready  assimilation  of  the  China- 
man and  Japanese  with  his  surroundings  in  Peru,  as  in 
Mexico,  might  seem  to  support  the  theory  of  some  pre- 
historic peopling  of  Latin  America  from  Asia,  or  affinity 
therewith.  The  negro,  on  the  other  hand,  is  regarded  with 
less  favour,  and  is  not  an  element  which  is  ever  likely  to  be 
absorbed. 

The  upper  classes  of  the  people  of  the  Andean  countries, 

the  white  and  the  educated  mestizo,  present  very  similar 

characteristics  in  Ecuador,  Peru,  Bolivia,  and  Chile  ;    and 

"Colombia  and  Venezuela  might  equally  be  included.     Their 

language,  appearance,  social  system,  laws,  and  literature  are 


200 


CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 


practically  the  same  throughout  the  whole  of  these  great 
territories  ;  and  the  circumstance  is  a  witness  to  the  vitality 
and  impress  of  the  Spanish  race  and  its  institutions.  There 
are  local  variations  in  this  class,  but  they  partake  more  or 
less  ot  the  same  virtues  and  defects.  The  Chileans  differ 
most  from  the  general  character  on  the  Pacific  coast — due  to 
the  difference  between  the  Quechua  and  Aymara  natives  of 
Peru  and  the  Araucanans  of  Chile,  who  form  the  basis  of 
the  native  populace  ;  also  to  a  certain  European  admixture, 
as  discussed  elsewhere. 

Peru  is  divided  into  eighteen  "  departments,"  two  littoral 
provinces,  and  the  "  constitutional  province  "  of  Callao. 
This  does  not  include  Tacna,  the  debated  territory,  and  its 
three  provinces.  The  departments  are  subdivided  into  an 
aggregate  of  ninety-eight  provinces,  whose  area,  position,  and 
approximate  population  are  as  follows,  beginning  at  the 
north : — 

Coast  Departments 


Depaxtments 

Area 
Sq.  miles 

Population 

Capital  Town. 

Piura 

16.825 

205,000 

Piura 

Lambayeque     . . 

4.614 

112.000 

Chiclayo. 

Libertad 

10,206 

250.000 

TrujiUo. 

Ancachs 

16,562 

405,000 

Huaraz 

Lima 

13.310 

280,000 

Lima. 

lea 

8,718 

80,000 

lea. 

Arequipa 

21,947 

218,000 

Arequipa. 

SlE 

RRA  OR  Mountain 

Departments 

Cajamarca 

12,540 

411,000 

Cajamarca. 

Huanuco 

14,024 

114,000 

Huanuco. 

Junin     .  . 

23,350 

390,000 

Cerro  de  Pasca 

Huancavelica   . . 

9.250 

222,000 

Huaneaveliea. 

Ayacucho 

18.185 

250,000 

Ayacucho. 

Apurimac 

8,187 

170,000 

Abancay. 

Cuzco     . . 

156,270 

420,000 

Cuzco. 

Puno 

41,200 

500,000 

Puno. 

Mo 

ntana  of  Forest 

Departments 

Amazonas 

13,940 

66,000 

Chachapoyas. 

Loreto   . . 

238,500 

151,000 

Iquitos. 

San  Martin       . . 

30,745 

42.000 

Moyobamba. 

Littoral  Provinces 

Tumbez 

1.990 

10.000 

Tumbez. 

Callao    . . 

i4i 

46,000 

Callao. 

Moquegua 

5.550 

41.000 

Moquegua. 

THE  REPUBLICS  OF  THE  ANDES— PERU       201 

These  populations  are  estimates,  and  must  be  regarded  as 
approximate. 

The  government  of  Peru  is  a  centrahsed,  as  opposed  to  a 
federal  system.  Its  constitution  provides  for  the  popular 
control  of  legislation  and  the  carrying  out  of  the  laws  by 
means  of  the  free  exercise  of  the  ballot.  Theoretically  the 
people  are  possessed  of  sovereign  rights  in  the  election  and 
choice  of  their  representatives ;  but  these  excellent  ideals 
are,  unfortunately,  frequently  defeated  by  reason  of  the  dic- 
tatorial attitude  of  the  governing  classes  and  the  ignorance 
and  poverty  of  the  masses,  and  their  dependence  upon  the 
great  landed  proprietors  and  industrial  corporations.  The 
destinies  of  the  country,  therefore,  remain,  generally  speaking, 
at  the  disposal  of  a  politically  arbitrary  class.  Citizenship 
is  accorded  to  all  Peruvians  over  twenty-one,  and  all  married 
men  under  that  age,  and  the  suffrage  is  extended  to  all 
citizens  who  can  read  and  write  or  who  pay  taxes.  The 
government  is  divided  into  the  three  divisions  customary 
among  the  Latin  American  republics,  of  Legislative,  Execu- 
tive and  Judicial,  of  which  the  executive  is  the  dominant 
power.  A  president  and  two  vice-presidents,  elected  for  a 
term  of  five  years,  and  a  cabinet  of  six  ministers  constitute 
the  executive  branch.  In  the  departments  the  law  is  carried 
out  and  government  controlled  by  prefects,  and  in  the  pro- 
vinces by  sub-prefects,  all  of  whom  are  appointed  by  the 
President.  The  Legislative  power  is  in  the  hands  of  Congress, 
formed  of  a  chamber  of  deputies  and  a  senate,  elected  by 
direct  vote,  the  senators  by  departments  and  the  deputies 
in  proportion  to  the  population.  There  are  an  equal 
numbers  of  substitutes  or  "  suplentes,"  who  take  office 
in  case  of  vacancy,  and  all  must  be  native-bom  citizens. 
The  senators  must  have  a  yearly  income  of  1,000  dollars, 
and  the  deputies  500  dollars.  The  Judiciary  consists  in  a 
supreme  court,  superior  courts,  courts  of  first  instance, 
and  justices  of  the  peace.  The  supreme  court  is  situated 
at  the  national  capital,  Lima,  and  the  judges  are  selected 
by  Congress.  Questions  of  jurisdiction  between  the  superior 
and  supreme  courts,  or  between  the  supreme  court  and  the 
executive  are  settled  by  the  senate  sitting  as  a  court.  Courts 
of  first  instance  are  established  in  the  provinces. 


202  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH   AMERICA 

The  safeguards  against  electoral,  official,  and  judicial 
abuses  in  Peru  are  theoretically  impregnable,  but  in  practice 
few  countries  have  suffered  more  from  political  disorders, 
often  brought  about  by  their  contravention.  The  inde- 
pendence of  the  courts  has  not  always  been  maintained,  and 
the  republic  has  had  to  undergo  much  criticism  for  these 
reasons.  It  is  to  be  recollected,  however,  that  many  of  the 
departments  and  towns  are  extremely  remote  from  the  seat 
of  government,  and  that  corruption  and  malpractices  spring 
spontaneously  in  the  Peruvian  character  away  from  the 
influence  of  public  opinion  and  the  direct  powers  of  the 
executive.  Hundreds  of  miles  of  mountain,  desert,  and 
forest  separate  the  outlying  centres  of  population  from  the 
capital,  and  to  judge  between  truth  and  falsehood  as  concerns 
reports,  and  to  distinguish  between  punishment  and  oppres- 
sion, is  not  always  easy  for  a  remote  government,  situated  on 
the  Pacific  coast,  without  means  of  communication  in  most 
cases  with  the  hinterland  except  by  the  execrable  mule 
trails.  Justice  becomes  largely  a  matter  of  position  and 
influence,  and  must  be  looked  upon  as  in  a  mediaeval  stage 
in  the  remoter  districts. 

The  provinces  are  further  subdivided  into  districts,  over 
which  gobernadores  and  Alcaldes  are  appointed  by  the 
prefects.  There  are  many  hundreds  of  these  petty  officials 
throughout  Peru,  who  are  naturally  unsalaried.  They  are 
generally  drawn  from  some  prominent  shopkeeper  or 
townsman  of  the  villages,  and  their  control  of  the  Cholo  and 
Indian  population  is  an  autocratic  one.  They  not  unfre- 
quently  acquire  local  wealth  at  the  expense  of  these  classes, 
who  have  to  suffer  without  redress  or  only  that  afforded  by 
the  influence  of  the  parish  priest,  whose  authority  itself 
is  often  spoliation  under  the  cloak  of  religion.  In  the 
Montaiia  region,  the  uncivilised  Indians  have  no  civil  rights, 
and  are  hunted  and  enslaved  even  by  the  petty  authorities. 
On  the  whole,  however,  the  gobernadores  and  their  kind  are 
not  ill-disposed  towards  the  poorer  classes,  and  there  are  evi- 
dences that,  under  growing  enlightenment,  they  would  avail 
themselves  of  better  methods.  Both  the  gobernador  and 
the  cura  are  intelligent   and  hospitable  as  a  rule  towards 


THE    REPUBLICS    OF    THE    ANDES— PERU    203 

the  traveller,  and  upon  their  good  offices  he  is  thrown,  as 
there  are  in  the  remote  districts  no  piibhc  facilities  of  any 
kind.  The  principal  cause  of  complaint  of  the  Cholos  and 
Indians  is  in  the  forced  labour  without  pay,  or  with  in- 
sufficient pay.  The  Indians  and  Cholos,  however,  are  them- 
selves often  lazy  and  deceitful.  They  have  long  been  abused 
by  their  white  conquerors  ;  and  the  mestizo  race,  from  which 
the  gobernadores  are  drawn,  are  even  harder  upon  them  than 
the  white  man.  The  dominant  note  of  the  lower  classes 
in  the  remote  region  is  that  of  distrust,  especially  towards 
the  military  element,  who  have  despoiled  them  in  every 
revolution  and  even  in  times  of  peace  by  commandeering 
their  food  and  animals,  and  making  free  with  their  women. 

The  republic  is  divided  into  four  military  districts,  at 
Piura,  Lima,  Arequipa,  and  Iquitos  respectively.  Formerly 
the  Indians  were  pressed  into  the  service,  with  the  whites  as 
officers,  but  service  is  now  obligatory  for  all  Peruvians 
between  the  ages  of  nineteen  and  fifty,  in  one  or  other  of  the 
various  classes.  A  part  of  the  troops  are  drawn  from  con- 
victs and  other  outpourings  of  the  prisons.  The  reorganisa- 
tion of  the  army  was  brought  about  by  a  French  "  military 
mission."  The  Peruvian  soldier  is  generally  hardy,  patient, 
and  brave. 

The  navy  has  grown  little  since  its  practical  annihila- 
tion in  the  Chilean  war,  but  two  new  cruisers  have  been 
acquired  on  the  Pacific  coast,  and  on  the  Amazon,  or  Maranon, 
and  affluents  are  a  few  river  boats  engaged  in  the  police 
and  survey  work.  Peru  has  fine  national  traditions  con- 
cerning both  her  army  and  navy,  whicli  are  worthy  sources  of 
inspiration  to  her  poets  and  to  the  present  generation  :  and 
a  strong  sense  of  patriotism  animates  all  classes  of  those 
who  hold  civic  rights  and  have  the  sensibilities  wrought  of 
the  admixture  of  white  blood.  Even  the  abused  Indians  of 
Peru  have  fought  staunchly  in  the  republic's  wars,  and  the 
brave  upland  natives  perished  in  thousands  on  the  coast 
during  the  Chilean  war,  both  in  battle  and  from  the  change 
of  climate  and  general  privations.  Among  those  names  which 
always  stir  the  Peruvians  to  emotion  are  Grau,  and  his 
famous  battleship    the  Huascar,   and   Bolognesi    and    his 


204  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 

fateful  defence  of  the  Morro  of  Arica — ^national  heroes  whose 
names  are  wrapped  in  romance,  remembered  with  gratitude 
and  spoken  with  reverence.* 

Along  the  coast  of  Peru  lies  the  more  modern  and  energetic 
life  of  the  country.  There  are  some  good  harbours,  but  with 
the  exception  of  Callao,  Chimbote,  and  Payta,  the  Peruvian 
seaports  are  generally  small,  open  roadsteads,  where  landing 
is  difficult.  The  coast  towns  generally  lie  inland  some  distance 
from  the  ports,  connected  by  short  lines  of  railway,  and  the 
ports  are  often  Uttle  more  than  poor  collections  of  habita- 
tions around  the  landing  stage  and  customs  house,  of  a 
straggling  and  unkempt  appearance.  Chimbote,  in  the  north, 
has  a  fine  sheltered  bay  of  large  size,  but  it  is  a  minor  port, 
with  little  traffic.  In  the  country  behind  lies  the  valley  of 
Huaylas,  of  considerable  agricultural  and  mineral  resource, 
threaded  by  the  torrential  Santa  river.  Extensive  coal 
deposits  exist  in  this  valley,  which  is  one  of  the  most 
populated  in  the  country ;  and  a  railway  has  long  been  under 
construction  to  Huaraz,  an  important  town  near  the  head 
of  the  valley.  North  of  Chimbote  is  Payta,  the  centre  of 
the  important  cotton  producing  district  of  Piura,  one  of 
the  principal  agricultural  regions  of  Peru.  Payta  is  impor- 
tant in  addition  as  being  the  terminus  of  a  projected  line 
across  the  littoral  and  the  Andes  down  to  the  headwaters  of 
the  Maraiion,  or  Amazon,  where  steam  navigation  begins  for 
the  Amazon  valley.  Such  a  line  would  be  of  much  com- 
mercial and  strategic  importance  to  Peru.  In  the  extreme 
north  is  the  desert  of  Sechura,  which  yields  sulphur  commer- 
cially ;  but  none  of  the  barren  coast  districts  yield  nitrate, 
such  as  forms  the  mineral  wealth  of  northern  Chile.  The 
coast  of  Peru  is  more  broken  in  the  north,  with  broad  desert 
plains,  which  form  the  westernmost  part  of  the  South 
American  continent.  The  desert  region  of  Piura  stretches 
for  200  miles  northwards  to  the  gulf  of  Guayaquil,  and  is 
traversed  by  the  Tumbez,  Chira,  and  Piura  rivers,  which 
supply  water  for  the  irrigation  of  some  of  the  most  valuable 
cotton  plantations  in  the  repubhc.  Tumbez  is  the  outlet 
for  a  petroleum-bearing  district,  which  has  given  rise  to  an 

*    See  the  Author's  "  Peru." 


THE    REPUBLICS    OF    THE    ANDES— PERU    205 

oil  producing  industry  of  considerable  importance,  known 
as  the  Lobitos  oilfields.  Coming  southwards  is  the  port  of 
Salaverry,  connected  with  the  important  city  of  Trujillo, 
situated  amid  the  fertile  sugar-producing  valleys  of  Chicama. 
This  district  is  of  archaeological  interest  as  having  been  the 
seat  of  one  of  the  most  ancient  peoples  of  South  America  : 
that  of  the  Chimus  of  Chan  Chan,  the  ruins  of  whose 
buildings  still  exist,  with  an  extensive  acropolis  from  which 
were  recently  unearthed  large  quantities  of  beautifully 
moulded  and  patterned  pottery,  whose  age  has  been  con- 
jectured at  7,000  years.  Similar  objects  have  been  found 
at  the  acropolis  of  Ancon,  and  that  of  Pachacamac,  both 
near  Lima,  which  have  yielded  ancient  huacas,  or  rehcs,  for 
centuries.  Eten,  connected  with  Chiclayo,  is  one  of  the  most 
important  towns  in  the  north  of  the  republic,  the  centre 
of  fertile  valleys  producing  sugar,  rice,  tobacco  and  "  Panama  " 
hats.  To  the  south  of  Trujillo  and  Chimbote  the  small  ports 
of  Casma  and  Huarmey  are  the  shipping  points  for  the  rich 
silver  mines  of  the  interior,  especially  those  in  the  valley 
of  Huaylas,  and  for  the  products  of  the  Montana  or  forest 
region  beyond  the  Andes,  with  some  food  produce  for  the 
coasting  trade  and  Lima.  Near  Huacho,  another  minor  port, 
are  extensive  salt  pans,  where  pure  salt  is  recovered  from 
the  sands  by  the  process  of  evaporation,  yielding  some 
considerable  revenue.  The  port  is  now  connected  by  railway 
with  Lima.  Huacho  is  also  a  food-producing  centre  and 
hog-breeding  district,  but  is  additionally  important  as  being 
situated  at  the  mouth  of  a  valley  which  gives  ready  access 
to  the  Andes,  in  a  district  containing  vast  beds  of  coal,  to 
tap  which  and  to  give  communication  with  the  interior  a  line 
of  railway  has  been  projected.  Such  a  line,  according 
to  the  surveys,  could  ascend  the  slopes  of  the  Andes  at  a 
maximum  gradient  of  2  per  cent. 

The  whole  of  the  northern  part  of  Peru  is  capable  of  much 
greater  industrial  development.  The  mines  of  the  coast 
range,  such  as  those  near  Salpo,  beyond  Trujillo,  where 
coal,  copper,  silver,  and  gold  have  long  been  worked,  are 
worthy  of  greater  attention.  The  district  around  Huaraz 
is  full  of  promise,  and  the  region  of  Recuay  has  long  been 


2o6  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 

famous  for  its  mines,  but  suffers  from  lack  of  railway 
transportation.  The  roads  are  generally  execrable,  the 
inhabitants  of  the  hinterland  being  without  the  initiative 
to  improve  upon  the  rough  mule-tracks  that  have  served 
them  for  centuries,  and  over  which  all  the  considerable 
merchandise  from  the  seaports,  and  the  ores  and  produce 
brought  down,  have  to  be  carried  by  mule-trains  at  heavy 
cost.  There  is  no  communication  by  rail  at  present  between 
this  part  of  Peru  and  the  capital,  although  the  Cerro  de 
Pasco  line,  a  continuation  of  the  Oroya  railway,  might  be 
continued  towards  Huaraz,  and  beyond.  The  mule  trails 
from  the  coast  to  the  Huaylas  valley,  and  to  the  Montaiia 
regions  beyond,  are  obliged  to  pass  the  summits  of  successive 
ranges  of  the  Cordillera  at  elevations  of  14,000  feet  and 
more,  involving  several  days'  journeying  on  mule  back. 
Other  important  towns  of  this  hinterland,  equally  difficult 
of  access,  are  Yungay,  Cajamarca,  Chachapoyas,  Huanuco, 
places  practically  unheard  of  by  the  outside  world,  but  each 
the  centre  of  districts  full  of  possibilities  for  the  future, 
enjoying  generally  an  excellent,  vigorous  chmate,  and 
surrounded  by  a  numerous  native  mining  and  agricultural 
population.  There  are  some  short  lines  of  railway  from 
some  of  the  seaports  of  the  northern  part  of  the  littoral, 
but  they  all  die  out  on  approaching  the  Cordillera. 

In  the  interior  of  the  department  of  Ancachs  appears  some 
of  the  most  stupendous  scenery  in  Peru  :  the  extensive 
snowy  range  of  the  Cordillera  Blanca,  or  white  Cordillera, 
taking  rank  among  the  most  striking  mountain  scenery  of 
the  world,  Huaraz,  which  lies  in  the  deep  valley  between 
the  black  and  white  Cordilleras,  was  an  old  Inca  centre, 
and  many  vestiges  remain  of  its  former  people,  both  in 
the  town  and  scattered  throughout  the  region  extending 
to  the  Marafion,  as  described  elsewhere.  Passing  the  white 
range,  descent  is  made  into  the  huge  department  of  Loreto, 
part  of  the  Peruvian  Orient  or  Montana,  which  so  far  is 
without  railway  communication  of  any  nature,  and  is 
much  isolated  from  the  governmental  activities  of  the 
capital.  The  forests  of  Loreto,  within  a  few  days'  ride  of 
Huaraz,  contain  extensive  plantations  of  the  coca  shrub, 


THE  REPUBLICS  OF  THE  ANDES— PERU  207 

whose  leaves  are  greatly  prized  by  the  Indians,  who  chew 
them  :  and  from  which  are  extracted  the  salts  of  the  drug 
cocaine,  in  the  primitive  factories  in  the  district.  The  fall 
in  the  high  price  of  the  article,  however,  of  recent  years, 
lessened  the  local  activity  in  its  production.  The  capital 
of  Loreto  is  the  fluvial  port  of  Iquitos,  but  this  Ues  upon 
its  eastern  verge,  on  the  navigable  Amazon,  as  described 
in  the  chapter  upon  the  Amazon  valley,  and  is  separated 
from  the  inhabited  districts  of  Huaraz  and  the  other  towns 
mentioned  by  great  stretches  of  almost  impassable  forests, 
swamps,  and  broken  country.  Nevertheless  there  exist 
vast  areas  of  land,  which,  when  communication  may  be 
established  therewith,  wiU  be  of  great  value  as  food-produc- 
ing and  colonising  centres.  The  conditions  of  soil  and 
climate  are  such  that  almost  every  kind  of  produce  of  the 
temperate  and  tropical  zones  may  be  raised.  Sugar-cane, 
cocoa,  cotton,  and  coffee  flourish,  fruits  of  all  kinds,  grapes, 
figs,  oranges,  pineapples,  bananas  and  all  else  grow  and  yield 
abundantly  ;  and  there  are  vast  grass  plains,  or  pajanales, 
for  cattle.  Malaria  is  a  serious  disorder,  but  depends 
largely  upon  local  and  sanitary  conditions.  Many  of  the 
valleys  merit  the  term  of  "  regions  of  everlasting  spring  " 
which  native  writers  are  fond  of  bestowing  upon  them  ;  but 
at  present  they  are  remote,  and  immigration  does  not  yet 
find  its  way  thereto. 

The  Peruvian  capital,  Lima,  lies  seven  miles  inland  from 
Callao,  and  these  governmental  and  commercial  centres  are 
far  separated  from  the  hinterland  :  too  far  for  its  efiicient 
governance.  In  certain  respects  Lima  may  be  considered 
the  most  interesting  city  upon  the  South  American  coast ; 
principally  as  regards  its  history  and  traditions.  The  city 
exemplifies  the  Spanish-colonial  type  of  capital,  with  the 
characteristic  broad  plazas,  abundant  and  massive  ecclesias- 
tical edifices,  and  quaint  domestic  architecture,  dating 
from  the  times  of  Pizarro  and  the  viceroys.  The  great 
Plaza  de  Armas,  dominated  by  the  massive,  handsome 
cathedral,  founded  by  Pizarro  and  containing  his  remains, 
is  the  centre  of  the  city,  and  good  streets  run  therefrom, 
with  other  plazas  and  alamedas.     One  of  the  most  typical 


2o8  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 

parts  of  Lima  is  the  Plaza  de  la  Inquisicion,  where  the  fires 
of  the  Romish  church,  in  the  Autos  de  fe,  worked  their  will 
upon  heretics  and  Lutherans — the  first  of  which  was  prac- 
tised in  1573,  followed  by  the  benumbing  influence  of  the 
appaUing  institution  until  1813,  when  the  news  of  its  aboh- 
tion  in  Spain  was  learned  in  Lima,  and  the  populace  de- 
stroyed the  holy  office,  its  instruments  of  torture,  and 
all  its  works.  The  residential  streets  are  of  not  unpleasing 
appearance,  with  their  quaint  and  soUd  architecture,  barred 
windows,  and  wide  doorways.  The  splendid  carved  oak 
balconies  and  doors  of  the  old  mansions  of  the  colonial 
period,  and  the  houses  of  the  viceroys,  are  fine  examples 
of  a  bygone  house-building  art  :  matters  which  are  generally 
more  attractive  than  the  somewhat  garish  modem  style, 
in  which  showy  structures  of  cement  and  stucco  predominate. 
The  fashionable  drive  and  promenade  of  the  Paseo  de 
Colon,  with  gardens  and  statuary  running  down  its  length 
and  public  monuments  at  either  end,  lined  by  handsome 
dwelling  houses,  ranks  as  one  of  the  finest  in  South  America. 
Life  is  largely  lived  in  flats,  or  viviendas,  rather  than  in  large 
houses,  or  at  least  by  the  middle  class,  and  access  to  these 
is  gained  by  open  patios  often  adorned  with  shrubs. 

The  modem  public  buildings  of  Lima  do  not  reveal  evi- 
dences of  wealth  such  as  characterise  the  capitals  of  Argen- 
tina, Brazil,  and  Chile,  for  Peru  has  suffered,  since  the  time 
of  independence,  serious  impoverishment  from  which  it  has 
not  yet  recovered.  Evidences  of  modern  development  are 
by  no  means  lacking,  and  of  late  years  public  institutions 
have  shown  marked  improvement,  and  new  buildings  and 
streets  have  grown  up.  The  fine  suburbs,  residential 
watering  places  of  Miraflores,  Barranco,  and  Chorillos  are 
evidences  of  some  considerable  wealth,  and  are  reached  by 
excellent  electric  tramways  and  railways.  The  population 
of  Lima  is  about  200,000.  This  is  considerably  less  than  that 
of  Santiago,  the  Chilean  capital.  Callao,  the  well-known 
seaport,  with  50,000  inhabitants,  is  second  as  a  commercial 
centre  only  to  Valparaiso  ;  and  its  geographical  position, 
central  to  an  extensive  range  of  seaboard,  thousands  of  miles 
long,  ensures  its  importance  in  the  future  development  of 


THE    REPUBLICS    OF    THE    ANDES— PERU    209 

western  South  America.  Callao  affords  one  of  the  few  good 
harbours  on  the  coast,  its  artificial  haven  being  protected 
by  the  barren  island  of  San  Lorenzo.  Business  is  there 
represented  by  about  400,000  tons  of  cargo  annually, 
brought  to  or  conveyed  thence  by  ships  of  all  nationalities, 
whose  flags  are  seen  in  the  harbour. 

Lima  is  an  administrative  and  residential  centre.  Peru 
is  not  a  manufacturing  country,  except  as  regards  cotton 
goods  and  sugar,  although  the  government  policy,  as  cus- 
tomary in  all  Latin  American  countries,  is  to  endeavour  to 
build  up  home  industries  by  tariffs  and  other  protective 
methods.  There  is  no  special  product  in  the  region  such  as 
has  created  the  wealth  produced  by  the  nitrate  beds  in 
Chile,  or  the  pastoral  and  agricultural  exports  of  Argentina 
and  Brazil.  The  soil  in  the  vicinity  of  Lima  is  cultivable 
only  under  irrigation,  and  although  the  city  is  surrounded 
by  fruitful  farms  and  ranches,  the  welcome  green  region 
of  the  Rimac  valley,  these  do  little  more  than  supply  a 
portion  of  local  requirements.  The  agricultural  and  mineral 
wealth  of  Peru  is  widely  distributed,  and  not  tributary  to 
the  capital  as  a  whole,  for  no  railway  lines  connect  it  with 
the  outlying  provinces  as  yet.  Some  of  the  most  important 
mining  regions,  however,  have  their  outlet  through  the  city 
by  means  of  the  Oroya  railway,  which  crosses  the  littoral  and 
ascends  the  Andes.  Ramifications  of  this  important  line  are 
slowly  being  pushed  out  into  the  adjoining  Andean  valleys, 
where  the  production  of  mineral  and  pastoral  wealth  is 
being  stimulated.  The  most  valuable  exports  of  Peru, 
however,  are  the  sugar  and  cotton  from  the  irrigated  coast 
lands  lying  both  to  the  north  and  south  of  Lima  :  some  of 
which  have  been  described. 

The  educated  classes  of  Peruvian  society  reveal  pleasing 
characteristics  and  qualities  of  refinement,  hospitality,  and 
courtesy.  They  are  an  artistic,  musical,  and  literary  people  ; 
and  science  and  the  professions  are  eagerly  followed.  Were 
it  not  for  a  certain  lack  of  sincerity  and  the  easy  falling  into 
double  dealing  in  commercial  and  political  matters,  which 
is  their  gravest  defect  as  a  nation,  the  Peruvians  might  have 
become  leaders  of  civiUsation  on  the  continent  :    but  they 

o 


210  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 

lost  their  wealth  in  the  war  with  Chile  and  squandered  the 
proceeds  of  the  great  guano  deposit.  In  the  times  of  their 
prosperity  they  became  arrogant  and  corrupt.  But  the 
traditions  of  culture  and  history  which  centre  about  Lima 
are  such  as  no  other  South  American  capital  possesses, 
although  they  have  been  sacrificed  in  former  years  to  luxury 
and  lax  methods,  and  to  poHtical  enmities  ;  which  at  the 
present  time  are  far  from  being  stilled.  The  women  of  the 
upper  class  are  often  strikingly  handsome  and  attractive, 
and  have  indeed  acquired  fame  for  their  vivacity  :  and  they 
compare  favourably  with  the  leisured  caste  of  any  country. 
The  native  refinement  of  the  Latin  American  woman  is 
strongly  typified  in  all  classes  in  Peru.  The  poor  are  modest 
and  respectful :  the  wealthy  distinguished  and  charitably- 
disposed.  Much  is  to  be  expected  from  this  type  of  Latin 
American  woman  in  the  future. 

The  Peruvians  take  considerable  pride  in  their  educational 
establishments,  but  these  do  not  reach,  except  in  small 
degree,  the  poorer  and  semi-Indian  classes,  and  by  far  the 
greater  part  of  the  population  is  illiterate.  The  middle  and 
poorer  classes  by  no  means  lack  intelligence,  and  deserve 
a  better  lot.  On  the  proclaiming  of  Independence,  the 
hand  of  the  Church,  which  had  always  been  heavy,  was 
lightened,  and  its  anti-educational  influence  removed  to  some 
extent.  Primary  instruction  is  free  and  nominally  com- 
pulsory, the  schools  being  divided  into  two  grades  :  a  free 
course  of  two  years,  and  a  higher  one  of  three,  in  "  scholastic 
centres,"  the  last  including  the  learning  of  a  trade.  The 
private  schools,  which  are  numerous,  contain  three  times  the 
number  of  scholars  of  the  public  primary  schools.  For 
secondary  education  there  are  twenty-three  national  col- 
leges for  boys  and  three  for  girls  in  the  various  capital  cities, 
with  foreign  instructors.  For  higher  education  there  are 
four  universities,  with  full  faculties  for  professional  and 
scientific  teaching  :  law,  letters,  philosophy,  science,  medi- 
cine, mathematics,  administrative,  theology,  and  political 
economy.  The  university  of  San  Marcos  at  Lima  is  a  famous 
institution,  the  oldest  in  South  America.  The  other  three, 
which  were  also  established  soon  after  the  Conquest,  are  at 


THE    REPUBLICS    OF    THE    ANDES— PERU    211 

Arequipa,  Cuzco,  and  Trujillo.  The  San  Marcos  university 
originated  in  a  grant  from  Charles  V.  in  155 1  to  the  Domini- 
cans. The  school  of  medicine,  which  is  one  of  the  foremost 
educational  institutions  in  Lima,  was  founded  in  1792  ;  the 
Cuzco  university  in  1598,  and  that  at  Arequipa  in  1616. 
There  is  a  naval  school  at  Callao  and  a  military  academy  at 
Chorillos — the  handsome  Lima  suburb  or  watering  place, 
and  nine  episcopal  seminaries,  one  for  each  diocese  ;  a 
national  agricultural  school  near  Lima  and  some  commercial 
schools  ;  also  a  correctional  school  for  youthful  delinquents. 
There  are  professional  schools  of  civil  and  mining  engineer- 
ing of  some  importance,  and  young  engineers  are  turned  out 
in  increasing  numbers.  The  mining  school  is  maintained 
by  the  taxes  on  mining  property. 

Whilst  it  cannot  be  said  that  the  Peruvians  as  a  whole  are 
either  great  readers  or  producers  of  books — no  Spanish 
American  people  are  yet — some  valuable  works  have  been 
written  in  Peru,  and  there  is  a  growing  desire  for  information. 
There  was  a  good  deal  of  literary  work  done  before  the 
beginning  of  Independence,  and  the  list  of  Peruvian  authors 
in  viceregal  times  is  a  long  one.  One  author — Peralta — 
wrote  more  than  sixty  works,  among  them  the  epic  poem 
"  Lima  Fundada."  It  is  interesting  to  recollect,  in  this 
connection,  that  there  is  a  native  Quechua  drama — pre- 
Hispanic — of  Ollanta,  of  the  times  of  the  Incas.  Peru- 
vian geographers  have  done  much  in  topographical  work, 
especially  Paz  Soldan,  1 821-1886,  who  wrote  several 
standard  books  and  a  geographical  gazetteer,  also  histories 
of  the  country  and  the  Chilean  war.  There  is  a  long  list 
of  legal,  topographical,  poetical,  naturalist,  archaeological, 
literary,  medical,  and  other  Peruvian  writers  of  more  or 
less  local  or  national  fame,  and  much  may  be  expected  of 
Peru  in  the  future.  Lima  has  indeed  certain  claims  to  be 
considered  the  foremost  city  in  South  America  as  regards 
literary  history.  It  was  the  principal  seat  of  the  Spanish 
viceroys,  from  which  that  enormous  littoral,  extending  from 
Chile  to  Mexico,  was  governed.  The  "  Ciudad  de  los  Reyes," 
or  City  of  the  Kings,  as  it  was  named  by  Pizarro,  its  founder, 
after  Juana  and  Carlos  V.  of  Spain,  was  afterwards  termed 


212  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 

"  Lima,"  a  corruption  of  the  Indian  name  Rimac,  of  the 
river  flowing  through  it  from  the  Andes  to  the  coast.  The 
Peruvians  have  ahvays  been  of  a  hterary  cast  of  mind,  and 
indeed  at  times  have  been  accused  of  verging  on  the  effem- 
inate— a  characteristic  derived  not  from  the  Spanish  an- 
cestry so  much  as  from  the  admixture  of  native  Quechua 
blood.  The  Quechuas  were,  and  their  descendants  in  the 
Andean  highlands  still  are,  a  pensive,  melancholy  race,  and 
these  qualities  were  accentuated  by  the  barbarous  persecu- 
tion of  their  governing  Inca  rulers  by  the  Spaniards  after 
the  conquest.  Thus  it  is  that  the  idealistic  and  romantic 
character  of  the  Spaniard  was  allied  with  the  melancholy  of 
the  native,  and  the  result  is  a  strong  literary  tendency, 
sometimes  quixotic,  often  neurotic,  but  capable  of  thought 
and  aspiration  which,  in  coming  times,  may  be  of  much  value 
to  the  great  world  of  Spanish  American  life. 

In  their  writings  in  the  Press  and  in  their  various  dis- 
courses the  Peruvians  are  extremely  eloquent,  though  to 
the  Anglo-Saxon  mind  too  much  inclined  to  the  grandilo- 
quent and  unpractical.  Exaggeration  is  one  of  the  failings 
of  the  Peruvian  writer  ;  and  another  is  the  tendency  to 
philosophise  upon  commonplace  matters.  The  Peruvian 
orator  indulges  in  extravagant  simile,  and  culls  from  the 
ancient  classics  to  illustrate  contentions  upon  very  ordinary 
matters.  Thus  "  glory  "  is  generally  "  immortal  glory  "  ; 
"  knowledge  "  becomes  "  profound  knowledge  "  ;  and  so 
forth.  This,  however,  is  a  general  Latin  American  trait, 
similarly  pronounced  in  Mexico,  Brazil,  or  Argentina.  The 
newspapers  and  magazines  encountered  upon  the  tables 
of  the  clubs  in  Lima  teem  with  sentimental  love- verses,  or 
with  verbose  adulations  of  public  personages.  Notwith- 
standing this,  a  practical  side  shows  itself  in  the  Press  and 
in  business  life.  The  Peruvian  is  ever  saying,  "  We  must 
be  practical  "  ;  and  this  spirit  too  often  reverts  to  the 
materialistic,  and  sometimes  to  a  neglect  of  the  commercial 
code  of  honour.  As  to  religion,  it  is  strongly  characteristic 
of  these  people  that  although  such  cities  as  Lima,  Arequipa, 
and  others  are  strongholds  of  Roman  Catholicism,  where 
the  cult  of  any  other  religion  is  illegal,  they  plunge  easily 


THE    REPUBLICS    OF    THE    ANDES— PERU    213 

from  the  mysticism  of  their  own  faith  to  the  opposite  ex- 
treme of  materiaHsm.  This  is  also  a  condition  of  all  Spanish 
America,  so  far  as  the  men  are  concerned  ;  the  women  never 
or  rarely  secede  from  their  faith. 

The  growing  desire  to  be  "  modern  "  is  now  strongly 
influencing  the  Peruvians  and  is  reflected  in  their  Press. 
There  are  several  journals  in  Lima  which  are  of  a  high  class, 
moderate  in  tone — except  as  regards  party  politics — with 
excellent  news  services  and  of  refined  literary  character. 
In  their  way  they  are  as  good  as  many  European  newspapers, 
whilst  the  observer  will  miss  with  a  feeling  of  refreshment 
the  sensationalism  of  the  Press  of  the  United  States.  It  is, 
however,  to  the  300  years  of  Spanish  rule  (and  misrule)  rather 
than  to  modern  times  that  Lima  owes  her  literary  value  and 
traditions.  In  some  respects  Lima  is  a  veritable  storehouse 
of  history  and  tradition  of  viceregal  days.  Notwithstanding 
the  crushing  tendency  of  the  Inquisition,  the  Peruvians 
were  writers  and  poets,  and  preserved  a  refined  and  literary 
character.  Printing  was  first  introduced  in  the  New  World, 
it  is  to  be  recollected,  in  Lima,  and  the  first  printing  press 
was  established  by  the  Jesuits,  who  arrived  in  1567. 
The  education  of  the  people,  however,  was  kept  in  the 
hands  of  the  priests.  The  numerous  churches  and  other 
ecclesiastical  institutions  bear  witness  to  the  strength  of 
the  clerical  regimen,  as  do  the  solid  structures  and  air  of 
attractive  medisevalism  of  some  of  Lima's  streets  to  the  vice- 
regal influence.  Many  of  the  old  churches  and  conventual 
establishments  are  exceedingly  beautiful  and  interesting. 
There  are  various  modern  institutions  of  a  literary  and 
scientific  character  in  Lima  which  show  the  Peruvians 
to  be  a  thoughtful  people,  and  that  furnish  evidence  of  a 
desire  for  a  sounder  character  and  development.  The 
pubhc  library,  founded  in  1822,  was,  and  still  is,  among  the 
foremost  of  such  institutions  in  Spanish  America.  The 
ruthless  havoc  wrought  in  1881  by  the  victorious  Chilean 
army,  which  used  the  building  as  a  barracks  and  permitted 
the  destruction  or  sale  as  waste-paper  of  valuable  books 
and  priceless  manuscripts,  was  largely  remedied  by  the  work 
of  a  Peruvian  man  of  letters,  Ricardo  Palma,  who  re-formed 


214  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 

the  library.  Lima  possesses  a  Geographical  Society,  which 
does  important  topographical  work  in  the  exploration  and 
description  of  the  enormous  territories  of  the  Republic  ; 
the  Athenaeum,  or  literary  club,  an  Historical  Institute, 
which,  among  other  work,  investigates  and  records  matters 
concerning  the  early  Inca  and  Aymara  civilisations  ;  and,  as 
described,  societies  of  industry,  engineering,  medicine,  min- 
ing, music,  literature,  agriculture,  and  kindred  subjects.  As 
regards  their  language,  the  Peruvians  speak  possibly  the 
best  and  most  pleasing  Spanish,  or  Castellano,  encountered 
in  Spanish  America,  in  great  contrast  with  the  brusque  but 
more  virile  accent  of  their  neighbours,  the  Chileans. 

Among  famous  names  in  the  hterary  and  scientific  field, 
that  of  Antonio  Raymond!  stands  out  prominently,  and  his 
works  on  the  natural  history,  resources,  and  topography  of 
Peru  are  still  the  standard  authorities.  Now,  however,  the 
government  is  earnestly  endeavouring  to  explore  and  survey 
the  country,  the  greater  part  of  which  consists  in  inhospitable 
mountain  ranges  and  uplands  and  dense  forests,  in  contrast 
with  which  Lima,  in  its  peaceful  setting  in  the  equable 
climate  of  the  Pacific  littoral,  stands  out  sharply. 

Rehgious  practices  in  Peru  must  be  regarded  as  in  a  more 
or  less  mediaeval  condition.  Religion  is  a  strong  force  in 
the  life  of  the  educated  classes,  or  at  least  among  the  women, 
and  the  influence  of  the  priest  and  the  Church  still  paramount. 
Among  the  Indians  this  priestly  influence  is  extremely 
strong.  The  exercise  of  any  other  religion  or  attempts  at 
proselytism  is  against  the  Peruvian  constitutional  code, 
under  which,  as  enacted  in  i860  "  the  nation  professes  the 
Apostolic  Roman  Catholic  religion :  the  state  protects  it, 
and  does  not  permit  the  public  exercise  of  any  other."  It 
is  time  that  Peru  should  throw  off  this  bigotry.  A  certain 
amount  of  tolerance  in  Protestant  worship  exists,  and  in 
Lima  and  Cuzco  there  are  Anglican  churches  belonging  to 
the  diocese  of  the  bishop  of  the  Falkland  Islands,  which 
embraces  the  whole  Pacific  coast  of  South  America.  But 
these,  in  reality,  are  illegal,  and  their  existence  is  ignored 
rather  than  permitted.  Their  representatives  in  Cuzco 
have  sometimes  gone  in  fear  of   their  lives,  and  even  in 


THE    REPUBLICS    OF    THE    ANDES— PERU    215 

villages  near  Lima  representatives  and  colporteurs  of  foreign 
Bible  Societies  have  been  hounded  out  of  the  place  by  mobs 
aroused  by  fanatic  priests,  who  toll  the  church  bell  and  warn 
the  populace.  It  is  not  necessarily  Peruvian  statesmen, 
or  even  the  upper  enlightened  class,  who  oppose  the  advance 
of  Evangehcal  teaching,  but  the  priests,  who  fear  the  loss  of 
their  influence  and  power.  After  the  Putumayo  occurrences 
various  missionary  organisations  came  to  being  in  England 
with  the  purpose  of  sending  out  missions  to  the  rubber 
forests  ;  but  great  difficulties  were  anticipated  by  the  Pro- 
testant Mission,  due  to  the  illegaUty  of  the  estabhshment  of 
such  in  Peruvian  territory.  As  indicated  elsewhere,  the 
character  of  the  native  cura  in  the  uplands  and  his  mode 
of  life  have  been  subject  to  strong  criticism.  Celibacy  is 
honoured  in  the  breach  more  than  in  the  observance ;  a 
condition  which,  however,  need  scarcely  call  forth  the 
censure,  save  as  a  matter  of  principle,  of  the  common-sense 
observer.  To  condemn  man  to  live  without  woman, 
especially  under  the  social  conditions  existing  in  Latin 
America,  ought  to  call  forth  now  the  condemnation  of 
moralists,  hygienists,  and  all  practical  thinkers. 

As  regards  its  ecclesiastical  organisation  Peru  is  divided 
into  nine  dioceses  :  Lima,  which  is  an  archbishopric,  Are- 
quipa,  Puna,  Cuzco,  Ayacucho,  Huanuco,  Huaraz,  Trujillo, 
and  Chachapoyas  :  subdivided  into  more  than  600  curacies, 
whose  officiating  heads  are  the  town  and  village  curas,  or 
curate- vicars.  In  each  diocese  is  a  seminary  for  the  edu- 
cation of  the  priesthood.  Arequipa  is  a  stronghold  of  cleri- 
cahsm,  and,  like  several  other  such  centres  in  South  America, 
exercises  an  influence  in  politics  as  well  as  religious  matters. 
The  monasteries  and  nunneries  are  numerous  and  are 
often  the  seat  of  much  charitable  work.  Indeed,  religion 
in  Peru  greatly  inculcates  charity,  as  in  all  Latin  American 
lands,  and  others  where  the  Romish  Church  holds  sway :  and 
this  and  other  good  elements,  such  as  the  considerable 
good  home  influence,  must  be  weighed  in  the  balance  against 
the  palpable  evils  of  the  system.  The  educational  work  of 
the  convents  is  to  some  extent  an  obstacle  to  the  better 
development  of  the  public  school  system  in  Peru.     There 


2i6  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA       ' 

are  various  charitable  institutions  in  Lima,  and  hospitals  : 
but  the  regimen  of  the  latter  often  leaves  much  to  be  desired. 
The  Church  fiestas  or  feast  days  are  kept  with  pomp  and 
ceremony  in  the  towns,  and  in  the  capital,  on  such  occasions, 
the  president  and  his  suite,  attended  by  the  military  and 
surrounded  by  mule-batteries,  are  special  evidences  of  Easter 
time  in  the  great  plaza  of  Lima. 

In  the  Spanish  American  countries  at  Easter  time,  and 
during  other  important  church  functions,  the  streets  and 
churches  present  an  animated  scene.  The  people  flock  to 
the  churches,  visiting  as  many  as  possible — as  many  as 
seven,  if  time  and  opportunity  permit — and  the  buildings  are 
crowded,  whilst  the  most  elaborate  and  solemn  ceremonies 
take  place.  The  atmosphere  inside  the  temples  becomes 
suffocating,  especially  when  there  are  many  of  the  working 
or  Indian  class  within.  On  ordinary  occasions  these  latter 
sit  upon  the  floor  in  the  temple,  with  the  utmost  placidity, 
or  bend  low  over  the  stone  or  earth  pavement,  or  adore  the 
waxen  images  ;  and  holy  processions  take  their  way, 
heavy  platforms  with  life-sized  figures  in  tableaux  thereon, 
carried  by  Indians  concealed  underneath  by  draperies,  the 
heavy  dais  being  borne  by  its  invisible  bearers  through  the 
principal  streets,  forming  the  main  object  in  the  procession 
of  priests  and  people.  In  marked  contrast  is  the  resting- 
place  of  the  dead  in  these  communities.  The  public 
cemetery,  or  "  Campo  Santo,"  is  often  in  a  dismal,  barren 
position  upon  the  arid  ground  outside  the  town.  The 
graves  are  uncared  for,  a  few  straggling  and  primitive 
wooden  crosses  mark  the  mounds,  which  soon  fall  away,  and 
the  place  is  neglected.  The^  Latin  American  character 
appears  to  regard  tombs  with  little  veneration.  There  are 
no  green  churchyards,  such  as  are  the  delight  of  the  English 
village  ;  no  ivied  walls,  or  planted  graves  or  headstones. 
The  dead  are  put  away  and  forgotten  ;  and  the  Campo 
Santo  strikes  a  note  of  melancholy  which  the  foreigner  does 
not  soon  forget.  In  the  capital  cities,  however,  in  some  in- 
stances, there  are  well-laid-out  cemeteries. 

The  people  of  Lima  are  pleasure-loving,  like  all  Latin 
Americans.    Theatres,  bull-fights,  lotteries,  horse-racing,  and 


THE    REPUBLICS    OF    THE    ANDES— PERU    217 

music  are  among  their  principal  pastimes.  The  bull-fights 
are  eagerly  attended,  especially  when  some  famous  Spanish 
matador  or  troop  of  toreros  is  announced.  Horse-racing, 
however,  is  replacing  this  sport  among  the  upper  classes  to 
some  extent.  The  race-ground  and  grand  stand  of  Lima  is 
a  fine  and  well-situated  institution,  and  is  crowded  with  the 
fashionable  on  race  days,  when  a  good  deal  of  money  changes 
hands.  Lottery  ticket  vendors  crowd  the  streets  and  deafen 
the  passers-by,  thrusting  the  tickets  into  their  faces.  Old 
men  and  women  of  the  poor  or  broken-down  class,  and  young 
boys  and  girls,  are  those  who  principally  ply  the  trade,  and 
the  whole  public  purchases  tickets.  The  hope  of  winning 
a  stake  in  a  lottery  is  nourished  by  all  classes.  A  show  of 
morality  or  claim  of  extenuation  is  kept  up  for  the  practice 
by  awarding  a  portion  of  the  proceeds  of  the  affair  to  the 
Beneficencia  Pubhca,  or  Public  Benefit  Institution. 

The  various  clubs  of  Lima — the  National,  the  British,  the 
Constitutional  and  Spanish  and  Italian — are  generally  Vv^ell- 
kept  institutions,  the  first  being  housed  in  a  handsome 
palace,  forming  the  main  centre  of  polite  club  life.  There 
are  various  modern  hotels  in  the  city,  generally  controlled 
by  Italians  and  Frenchmen.  The  carnival  is  a  singular 
survival  of  a  form  of  amusement  in  Peru.  For  three  days 
every  year  the  whole  of  society  and  the  populace  appears  as 
if  demented.  Street  passengers  and  tram-cars  are  deluged 
with  water  and  bags  of  flour  from  balconies  as  they  pass, 
and  indeed  the  streets  are  impassable.  Riotous  fun  is  per- 
mitted in  private  houses  and  between  the  sexes,  which, 
whatever  its  defects,  has  the  effect  of  bringing  about 
an  added  intercourse  among  people  who  are  often  inclined 
to  be  too  formal.  Carnival  is  equally  carried  on  in  the 
interior  towns  :  and  even  in  remote  hamlets  bands  of  painted 
and  drunken  Cholos  and  Indians  are  encountered  marching 
about,  to  the  accompaniment  of  primitive  music  :  revelling 
for  the  moment  in  organised  disorder. 

South  of  Lima  and  Callao  are  small  ports  serving  ex- 
tensive sugar  and  cotton  plantations,  such  as  Canete  and 
Pisco.  lea,  a  few  miles  inland  from  the  last-named  port, 
is  surrounded  by  a  broad,  irrigated  valley,  forming  one  of  the 


2i8  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

best  agricultural  parts  of  the  republic,  producing  cotton 
and  wine,  both  of  excellent  quality.  Pisco  is  one  of  the  most 
important  seaports  of  Peru.  Southward  the  ports  and 
valleys  are  smaller,  although  there  are  large  valleys  capable 
of  increased  irrigation  and  production.  Wines  and  brandies 
are  produced  in  these  valleys,  and  some  minerals.  The 
improvement  of  irrigation  of  these  districts  necessitates  a 
considerable  expenditure  of  capital.  The  engineers  of  the 
government  have  made  a  detailed  study  of  the  irrigable 
tracts,  and  concessions  are  obtainable  for  their  development. 
Peru  is  already  one  of  the  most  advanced  of  the  South 
American  countries  in  scientific  irrigation.  The  port  of 
Mollendo  in  southern  Peru  is  the  outlet  for  an  extensive 
region  served  by  the  southern  railways  system,  and  is  the 
port  of  entry  and  outlet  for  Arequipa  and  the  Titicaca  dis- 
trict, and  the  vast  Montana  region  beyond,  with  extensive 
resources  of  goldfields,  rubber  forests,  and  coffee,  chocolate, 
sugar,  and  other  products.  Mollendo,  however,  is  one  of 
the  worst  ports  on  the  coast,  and  during  rough  weather  land- 
ing is  dangerous  and  at  times  impossible.  It  has  long  been 
intended  to  remove  the  railway  terminus  to  a  more 
suitable  haven  not  far  away.  The  selection  of  Mollendo  as 
a  terminus  was  partly  due  to  financial  corruption  when  the 
line  was  built — an  error  whose  results  have  been  long  visited 
upon  the  country.  South  of  Mollendo  are  the  valuable 
districts  of  Ilo  and  Moquegua,  followed  by  the  pleasing 
seaport  of  Arica,  of  terrible  memory  in  the  Chilean  war. 

The  mild  and  equable  climate  enjoyed  by  the  coast  towns 
of  Peru,  gives  place  to  more  bracing  and  at  times  severe 
and  inclement  conditions  of  temperature  in  the  rest  of  the 
Peruvian  cities,  which  are  situated  at  considerable  elevations 
above  sea  level.  Arequipa  occupies  a  midway  position 
between  the  coast  and  the  Sierra.  It  lies  75  miles  from 
Mollendo,  at  an  elevation  of  7,850  feet,  and  enjoys  an  in- 
vigorating climate,  with  blue  skies  and  generally  healthful 
environment.  This,  together  with  the  character  of  its 
dwellings,  which  are  built  of  the  volcanic  freestone  that 
abounds  in  the  region,  creates  a  pleasing  impression.  The 
other  Peruvian  cities,  forming  the  capitals  of  the  various 


THE    REPUBLICS    OF    THE    ANDES— PERU    219 

departments  or  states,  generally  lie  in  remote  valleys  among 
the  mountains,  and  are  in  some  cases  very  difficult  of  access 
from  the  seaboard.  Most  of  these  towns  are  unserved  by 
any  means  of  communication  except  primitive  mule-trails  : 
but  railway  extensions  in  the  last  few  years  have  reached 
a  few  of  the  more  important.  The  advent  of  the  locomotive 
in  the  remote  and  difficult  valleys  of  the  Andes  is  regarded 
in  those  communities  as  a  triumph  of  engineering  skill, 
and  greatly  appeals  to  the  imagination  of  the  inhabitants. 

Chief  among  the  Andean  cities  of  Peru  are  Cajamarca, 
Cuzco,  Puno,  Huancayo,  Jauja,  Abancay,  Huancavehca, 
Ayacucho,  and  Cerro  de  Pasco ;  all  of  them  being  of 
some  historic  or  peculiar  interest.  Cajamarca  is  in  the 
north,  500  miles  from  Lima :  a  mountain  town,  at  an 
elevation  of  nearly  9,500  feet  above  sea  level,  and  was  the 
scene  of  the  conquest  of  Peru  by  Pizarro,  and  of  the 
death  of  Atapualpa,  the  last  Inca  emperor.  It  was  at 
Cajamarca  that  Atahualpa,  imprisoned  by  the  Spaniards, 
reached  up  to  a  line  upon  his  prison  wall  and  promised  to 
fill  the  room  thereto  with  gold,  if  the  Spaniards  would 
release  him  :  an  offer  he  fulfilled,  only,  however,  to  be 
murdered. 

Cuzco,  the  capital  of  the  old  Inca  empire,  hes  almost  a 
similar  distance  to  the  south  of  Lima  at  an  elevation  of  about 
11,500  feet,  and  is  a  populous  place,  now  reached  by  the 
southern  railway  extension  from  Puno,  upon  Lake  Titicaca. 
Cuzco  is  surrounded  on  every  side  by  mountain  peaks,  which 
overhang  the  old  Inca  capital,  once  the  centre  of  perhaps 
the  most  benevolent  monarchial  rule  the  world  has  ever 
known,  as  described  elsewhere.  The  intensive  cultivation 
of  the  soil,  which  was  carried  out  on  the  terraces  banked  up 
on  the  mountain  slopes  around  Cuzco,  supported  a  large 
population;  and  the  old  temples,  seme  of  which  remain 
in  part,  the  walls,  with  their  gigantic  stones,  the  bridges 
and  fortresses  are  all  witnesses  to  the  development  of 
that  ancient  regimen  which  the  Spaniards  overthrew. 
The  population  of  Cuzco  has  decreased  greatly  since 
those  times,  but  the  city  and  province  is  still  one  of 
the  most  thickly  peopled  parts  of  Peru.     The  convent  of 


220  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH  AMERICA 

Santo  Domingo  is  of  religious  interest,  upon  the  site  of 
a  former  Inca  temple,  with  an  altar  upon  the  spot  once 
occupied  by  the  sacred  emblems  of  the  sun-god.  The  cathe- 
dral of  Cuzco,  built  at  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  is  a  notable  specimen  of  Spanish-colonial  church 
architecture,  with  a  high  altar  covered  with  silver.  Cuzco 
is  also  the  centre  of  a  fertile  agricultural  region,  and 
chocolate  and  coffee  are  brought  in  from  the  lower  valleys 
of  the  Montafia — a  region  of  great  possibilities. 

The  town  of  Puno  lies  12,650  feet  above  sea  level,  on  the 
edge  of  the  lake,  and  825  miles  from  Lima.  Cerro  de  Pasco 
lies  north  of  Lima,  near  the  terminus  of  the  Oroya  railway, 
175  miles  from  the  capital,  and  is  the  greatest  mining  centre 
in  the  country.  The  mines  were  long  famous  for  their  pro- 
duce of  silver,  and  at  the  present  time  are  large  producers 
of  copper  :  the  new  smelting  works  being  among  the  fore- 
most in  South  America.  It  has  been  asserted  by  the  Ameri- 
can capitalists  and  experts  who  control  the  Cerro  de  Pasco 
enterprise  that  the  mines  form  the  largest  deposits  of  copper 
ore  in  the  world.  The  town  stands  on  the  borders  of  lake 
Junin,  14,400  feet  above  sea  level,  and  suffers  as  to  its  climate 
by  reason  of  the  excessive  cold  and  altitude. 

The  remaining  large  towns  lie  in  the  great  longitudinal 
valleys  of  the  Andes,  in  some  cases  overtopped  by  the  snow- 
crowned  peaks,  which  near  Huaraz  rise  to  more  than  22,000 
feet  altitude.  Huancavelica  is  the  centre  of  the  great  quick- 
silver mines  which  were  extensively  worked  in  the  time  of 
the  viceroys,  and  were  described  as  "  one  of  the  brightest 
jewels  of  the  Spanish  crown  "  :  and  the  supplies  of  mercury 
they  yielded  made  possible  the  working  of  the  silver  mines 
throughout  Peru  and  Mexico  during  that  period.  But 
the  great  cavernous  mines  of  Huancavelica  fell  in  and 
buried  500  miners,  whose  bones  remain  there  to  this  day. 
Urged  by  a  jealous  and  incompetent  viceroy  to  produce 
more  quicksilver,  the  head  miner  removed  the  ore  columns 
which  supported  the  workings,  and,  these  gone,  the  mine 
collapsed,  bringing  death  to  the  great  working  population  be- 
neath, crushing  them  and  their  underground  chapels,  galleries, 
and  storehouses.     At  present  the  town  of  Huancavelica  is 


THE    REPUBLICS    OF    THE    ANDES— PERU     221 

difficult  of  access,  but  the  railway  from  Oroya  and  Huancayo 
may  ultimately  reach  the  city,  which  lies  at  an  elevation  of 
12,550  feet,  220  miles  distant  from  the  capital  Huancayo 
is  an  important  place  in  the  fine  Jauja  valley,  now  reached 
by  the  railway  from  Lima  and  Oroya  :  it  is  one  of  the  largest 
market  towns  in  the  repubhc,  and  the  centre  of  a  considerable 
population,  mainly  engaged  in  agriculture. 

The  distant  towns  and  communities  of  the  Andes  of  Peru, 
like  those  of  Bolivia,  Ecuador,  and  Colombia,  present  to 
the  traveller  who  refuses  to  be  overcome  by  their  remote- 
ness and  peculiar  triste  *  aspect  much  of  unique  interest. 
Their  picturesque  aspect,  the  bright  skies  and  invigorating 
atmosphere  which  alternate  with  the  heavy  rains  and  cold 
winds,  and  the  primitive  population  of  Indians  and  Cholos, 
with  typical  dress  and  primitive  habits,  are  subjects  of 
study  which  counteract  the  melancholy  atmosphere  induced 
by  the  half -ruined  buildings  and  general  lack  of  comfort. 
The  half-pathetic  endeavours  of  the  small  upper  class  to 
keep  abreast  of  the  knowledge  of  the  outside  world  and  to 
appear  conversant  with  the  doings  of  civilisation,  together 
with  their  pronounced  trait  of  hospitahty  towards  the  well- 
informed  traveller  or  foreigner,  offset  their  tendency  to 
double-deahng  in  business  and  the  other  defects  of  their 
character  and  environment.  These  people  are  not  sunk  in 
irreclaimable  stupidity  nor  dominated  by  any  form  of  social 
or  religious  fanaticism,  as  are  certain  peoples  and  races  of 
the  Old  World  ;  and  they  may  be  regarded  as  communities 
waiting   but   the   opportunity   to  germinate   and   develop. 

The  great  variations  in  climate,  fauna,  flora,  and  all  else 
in  Peru  due  to  elevation,  are  very  striking.  The  traveller, 
even  within  a  day's  ride  on  mountain  trails,  may  pass  from 
the  cold  plateaux  and  snowfields  to  valleys  where  orange  and 
lemon  groves  abound  ;  or,  in  a  couple  of  days,  from  the 
haunts  of  the  condor  and  vicuiia  to  the  forests  where  tribes 
of  monkeys  dwell.  In  ascending  from  the  warm  coast  lands 
upward  to  the  temperate  zones,  and  among  the  deep 
valleys  of  the  hinterland,  a  variety  of  valuable  products  and 
delicious   fruits   is   encountered  under  cultivation  ;    and  a 

•  The  Spanish  word  triste  is  one  used  by  the  inhabitants  in  this  connection. 


223  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 

flora  including  many  plants  familiar  in  Great  Britain.  Of 
fruits :  bananas,  pomegranates,  paltas — most  delicate  flav- 
oured of  fruits,  known  in  Britain  as  alligator  pears  (the  ana- 
cardium  occidentalis) — chirimoyas,  melons,  grapes,  oranges, 
peanuts,  etc.  A  scanty  pasture  is  encountered,  and  cacti 
of  various  forms  :  and  scanty  timber,  such  as  the  quishua, 
in  the  ravines.  The  warm  zone  is  left  at  6,000  feet,  and 
above  it,  up  to  11,500  feet,  maize,  barley,  wheat,  potatoes, 
alfalfa,  and  quinua  are  found  ;  and  buttercups,  violets, 
lupins,  geraniums,  pelargoniums,  and  other  flowers  growing 
wild  ;  also  apples,  pears,  cherries,  and  other  familiar  fruit 
under  desultory  cultivation  ;  and  the  mountain  ash,  oak, 
hawthorn — generally  all  stunted.  The  maguey — valuable 
plant — abounds,  and  the  nopal  or  prickly  pear  ;  and  the 
uplands  are  the  home  of  the  potato.  The  punas  are  covered 
with  the  ichu  or  long  grass,  so  valuable  to  the  natives  : 
and  in  the  lagoons  are  tall  sedges  or  rushes,  of  which  on 
Titicaca  the  Indians  make  their  raft  boats.  Above  this, 
at  13,500  feet,  the  hardy  barley  no  longer  grows,  and  maize 
does  not  ripen.  There  is  no  alfalfa,  no  timber.  The  mighty 
cactus  giganton  is  seen,  but  is  becoming  very  rare,  and  will 
soon  be  lost  to  botanical  science.  The  singular  yareta, 
(azorella  umhelliferae)  especially  on  the  Bolivian  and  northern 
Chilean  punas — appears,  like  a  vast  brown  mushroom  or 
cauliflower,  up  to  three  feet  in  diameter,  of  a  woody  texture, 
full  of  resin  and  forming  a  valuable  fuel,  growing  upon  the 
bare  rocks,  in  monstrous  lichen-like  fashion.  This  strange 
plant  or  fungus  is  rapidly  disappearing,  due  to  its  use  as 
fuel ;  and  it  is  of  very  slow  growth.  A  few  low,  thorny 
shrubs  are  seen  sparsely,  and  the  lower  limit  of  the  snow 
is  reached,  with  a  few  curious  plants  adapted  to  resist  the 
cold,  which  open  their  humble  petals  in  the  snow,  and 
some  cryptogams,  the  only  vegetable  inhabitants  of  this 
Andean  world,  antarctic  through  its  elevation.  Above,  all 
is  bare.  The  rocks  or  the  glaciers  rise  beyond  :  the  organic 
world  is  exhausted  ;  its  only  living  creature  is  the  occasional 
majestic  condor  ;  and  the  sun  rises  or  sets  upon  an  in- 
animate world. 

But  it  is  a  world  full,  nevertheless,  of  splendid  atmospheric 


THE  REPUBLICS  OF  THE  ANDES— PERU  223 

effects  and  curious  phenomena.  These  vast  high  uplands  are 
storehouses  also,  of  hydraulic  powers,  and  of  latent  electric 
energy,  which  is  strongly  manifested  at  times  :  and  there 
must  be  yet  undiscovered  uses,  sources  of  power  and  ele- 
ments unsuspected  at  present,  but  some  day  to  be  available, 
upon  the  high  plateaux  of  the  Andes. 

The  Cholos  of  the  uplands  are  an  extremely  hardy  race 
of  people,  forming  a  class  of  small  peasant  proprietors, 
perhaps  among  the  hardiest  and  most  independent  in  the 
world.  They  wrest  a  living  from  among  rocks  and  thorns 
in  their  small  chacaras  or  holdings,  in  a  way  which  is  a 
veritable  revelation  of  the  possibilities  of  primitive  agri- 
culture. Their  life  is  of  the  simplest,  and  their  habitations 
and  possessions  of  the  most  primitive  and  meagre :  a 
stone-built  hut,  its  walls  formed  of  unhewn  blocks  dug  from 
the  mountain  strata  or  collected  from  the  talus  of  the  slopes, 
the  roof  of  thatch  on  poles  obtained  with  difficulty  from  the 
twisted  limbs  of  the  quishua  trees,  which  grow  scantily  in 
the  ravines,  or  the  dried  stems  of  the  cactus  ;  the  covering 
of  the  ichu  grass  whose  tall  tufts  cover  the  high  punas. 
Notwithstanding  the  cold,  there  are  no  doors  to  these  huts, 
but  a  blanket  is  hung  across  the  aperture  at  night,  or  when 
the  owner  and  his  family  are  away  at  their  toil  or  minding 
their  flocks,  and  this  forms  a  sufficient  protection  for  people 
who  do  not  fear  the  rigour  of  the  climate,  nor  who  would 
ever  dare  to  violate  the  sanctity  of  a  dwelling  by  entering 
when  its  guardians  were  away.  These  people,  throughout 
Peru,  Bolivia,  Ecuador,  and  part  of  Chile,  retain  many  of 
the  customs  of  their  Inca  forbears,  inherited  from  the 
wonderful  agrarian  system,  which  is  described  in  a  subse- 
quent chapter.  They  still  form  and  cultivate  the  terraces 
on  the  hill  slopes,  the  "  Andenes,"  which  are  so  prominent 
a  feature  of  the  landscape,  with  their  rough  stone  walls. 
The  Cholo  and  Indian  agriculturists  are  almost  entirely 
independent  of  the  Peruvian  governing  or  mestizo  class, 
whom  they  regard  as  "  foreigners."  Civilisation  as  inter- 
preted by  Peru  can  give  them  httle.  Around  the  stone- 
built  huts  the  chacara  produces  maize  and  alfalfa,  up  to 
those  elevations  where  such  will  grow  ;  barley,  quinua,  and 


224  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 

potatoes  beyond  ;  and  no  place  is  too  inclement  for  their 
labours.  They  and  their  women  weave  all  their  clothes 
from  the  wool  shorn  from  their  own  mountain  sheep  or 
llamas,  spun  in  little  hand  spindles  which  the  women 
incessantly  twirl,  even  when  far  afield  minding  their  flocks  ; 
and  woven  in  the  looms  which  have  come  down  from  the 
times  immemorial  of  the  Incas.  They  are  barefooted,  or 
shod  with  sandals,  home  made.  There  is  nothing  for  their 
primitive  wants — except  alcohol  and  tobacco — that  they  can- 
not produce  from  the  soil.  Bread  they  do  not  have  :  only 
toasted  maize  or  cancha.  They  pay  neither  tax  nor  rent, 
and  make  no  contribution  to  the  corporate  life  of  the  re- 
public. They  are  veritable  children  of  the  soil.  The  Cholo 
woman  at  the  time  of  childbirth  may  be  alone  in  her  hut, 
if  that  be  situated  in  a  very  remote  spot  :  but  she  gives 
birth,  and  herself  gets  up  and  even  goes  out  to  collect  wood 
to  make  a  fire  and  heat  water  wherewith  to  wash  the  babe. 
Fuel,  in  these  places,  consists  in  the  scanty  bushes  of  the 
ravines,  for  timber  does  not  grow  to  any  size  in  the  uplands  ; 
the  ichu  grass,  and  the  dried  dung  of  the  llama,  known 
as  iaquia.  This  last-named  material  has  remarkable  calorific 
properties,  and  in  some  of  the  mining  districts  is  even  col- 
lected in  large  quantities  and  used  for  the  smelting  of  silver 
ores,  and  forms  in  such  situations  the  best  and  cheapest  fuel 
available.  This  marked  independence  of  the  upland  people 
does  not  make  for  civic  advancement.  They  work  for  the 
Peruvians  if  they  wish,  or  let  employment  alone,  accord- 
ing to  their  desire.  They  are  amenable  to  kindness  and 
justice,  to  both  of  which  they  are  strangers  as  a  rule  from  the 
governing  race,  who  regard  them  with  a  certain  amount  of 
contempt,  and  as  subjects  for  mere  service.  What  vices 
they  have,  have  mainly  been  acquired  from  the  whites  and 
mestizos.  The  traveller — and  he  is  a  rare  passenger  in 
the  remote  districts — who  approaches  their  villages  or 
solitary  huts,  will  often  have  difficulty  in  obtaining  fodder 
for  his  beasts  or  supplies  of  any  nature  for  himself.  Money 
often  has  no  value,  and  in  vain  he  will  offer  Bolivian  or 
Peruvian  silver  coin  in  exchange  for  eggs,  chickens,  or  al- 
falfa :   and  if  he  be  a  student  of  economy  the  lesson  is  not 


THE    REPUBLICS    OF    THE    ANDES— PERU    225 

without  some  value — that  money  is  without  purchasing 
price  among  a  self-contained  and  self -supplying  people. 
To  do  them  justice  they  will  often  bring  out  food  or  fodder 
from  a  sense  of  native  hospitality,  rather  than  from  any 
commercial  instinct.  These  traits,  however,  disappear  where 
more  frequent  contact  with  outside  people  occurs,  and  they 
become  tricky  and  exorbitant,  and  even  lying  and  deceitful 
— largely  as  a  measure  of  self-protection.  But,  as  observed 
elsewhere  in  these  pages,  the  Cholos  are  a  useful  race,  and 
none  other  could  replace  them  in  their  peculiar  habitat,  or 
perform  work  in  these  high  regions,  which  can  only  be 
carried  out  by  those  who  have  paid  nature  the  homage  of 
being  born  upon  the  soil,  li  they  are  to  be  encouraged  to 
increase  and  multiply— and  they  are  naturally  prolific, 
although  infant  mortality  is  very  heavy  due  to  their  lack  of 
knowledge  and  the  rigorous  condition  of  life — it  will  be  done 
not  by  any  system  of  commercialism  or  exploitation,  but 
by  kind  example  and  precept  in  matters  of  the  betterment 
of  their  simple  life.  Nearer  the  larger  towns  the  people, 
men  and  women,  driving  their  donkeys  or  llamas,  crowd  in 
on  market  days  and  church  days,  or  dias  de  fiesta,  with  their 
produce  to  sell,  clothed  in  bright-hued  ponchos.  That  is 
also  the  harvest  of  the  local  cur  a,  who  reaps  rich  reward 
in  tithes  and  offerings  from  his  flock,  the  simple  and  super- 
stitious Indian  of  the  uplands. 

Typical  of  the  Andean  uplands  is  the  Titicaca  plateau. 
Lake  Titicaca  is  a  hydrographic  system  of  much  interest. 
With  its  sister  lake  Poopo  or  Aullagus  and  the  connecting 
Desaguadero  river,  the  system  affords  a  valuable  waterway 
serving  that  part  of  Peru  and  BoHvia  :  and  the  steamers 
which  ply  thereon  run  in  connection  with  the  railway  systems 
from  the  coast.  Lake  Titicaca  is  165  miles  long  and  more 
than  60  wide,  with  a  greatest  observed  depth  of  892  feet  : 
lake  Poopo  is  55  miles  long,  and  25  wide,  with  a  depth  of 
only  4  to  13  feet.  The  first  drains  into  the  second  through 
the  Desaguadero,  a  system  like  a  cup  overflowing  into  a 
saucer  with  their  brims  at  a  level,  so  deep  is  Titacaca  and 
so  shallow  is  Poopo.  The  elevation  of  the  surface  of  lake 
Titicaca  is   12,370  feet  above  sea  level ;  it  is  fed  by  the 

p 


226  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

snows  and  streams  of  the  higher  Andes,  in  conjunction  with 
other  smaller  lakes  ;  and  the  whole  lake  basin  is  a  surviving 
one  of  a  series  which  formerly  occupied  other  inter- Andean 
valleys  and  plateaux.  Although  a  considerable  volume  of 
water  constantly  flows  through  the  system  into  Lake  Poopo 
there  is  no  outlet  to  the  sea,  the  waters  being  absorbed 
only  by  the  process  of  evaporation,  which  is  very  consider- 
able at  that  elevation,  and  by  seepage.  It  has  been  sur- 
mised, however,  that  some  subterrannean  outlet  might  exist. 
In  earlier  times  the  lake  must  have  been  even  more  exten- 
sive, and,  as  described  elsewhere,  may  have  reached  the 
famous  Tiahuanako  ruins  in  Bolivia.  Its  outlet  in  former 
periods  was  to  the  east  through  the  gorge  of  La  Paz.  Titi- 
caca  is  of  vast  archaeological  interest,  as  later  described. 
Another  high  lake  of  Peru  is  that  of  Junin,  close  to  Cerro 
de  Pasco,  36  miles  long  and  13,230  feet  above  sea  level  ; 
also  Parinacochas,  12  miles  long,  near  the  base  of  the  snowy 
Sara  Sara  peak,  but  it  is  little  known.  On  the  great  punas 
around  these  lakes  and  elsewhere,  the  traveller  journeys  for 
days  through  vast  quartzite  areas  and  treacherous  bogs, 
often  without  sight  of  human  habitation  ;  and  with  its 
broken  uplands,  deep  valleys,  and  snowy  peaks  Peru  might 
well  be  termed  the  Tibet  of  America  :  a  comparison  which 
is  heightened  by  the  Asiatic  physiognomy  often  of  the 
Quechua  and  Aymara  Indians,  who  are  the  inhabitants  of 
these  high  regions  :  and  who  seem  to  bear  out  in  their  faces 
the  theory  of  an  early  Tartar  peopling  of  America. 

Peru  and  the  other  Andean  countries  are  singularly  free 
from  ferocious  or  noxious  animals.  The  most  aggressive 
enemy  of  mankind,  and  this  only  in  certain  districts,  is  the 
mosquito.  The  puma  and  a  small  black  bear  are  occasion- 
ally encountered  in  the  higher  regions,  and  the  jaguar  in 
the  Amazon  lowlands ;  and  the  vicuna  and  deer  on  the 
uplands.  The  scorpion  or  alacran  and  the  centipede  are 
encountered  in  the  warmer  zone.  Snakes  are  rarely  seen. 
The  guinea-pig,  or  cui,  is  an  article  of  diet  among  the  Indians, 
as  also  the  viscachas  or  rock  squirrels,  which  abound  in 
places  ;  and  partridges  are  found  in  the  uplands.  There  is 
no  teeming  animal  life  such  as  Africa  affords,  except  in  the 


THE    REPUBLICS    OF    THE    ANDES— PERU     227 

hot  lowlands  of  the  Amazon,  upon  the  rivers.  In  the 
streams  upon  the  Pacific  slopes  the  camaron,  a  large  fresh 
water  prawn,  abounds,  and  is  considered  in  Lima  and  else- 
where a  great  delicacy.  Scarlet  feathered  flamingoes  haunt 
the  upland  lakes,  and  other  wild  fowl ;  some  of  edible  value. 
The  Chinchilla,  especially  towards  the  south,  is  a  native  of 
the  cold  lands,  well  known  for  its  valuable  fur.  It  is 
extremely  prolific,  hke  its  relative  the  viscacha. 

Except  for  a  comparatively  few  adventurous  spirits, 
mountain  climbing  among  the  great  snowy  peaks  of  the 
South  American  Cordillera  has  not  attracted  much  atten- 
tion, nor  become  the  pastime  which  the  Alps  furnish  to 
the  European  traveller.  The  Andes  are  too  remote  for  the 
ordinary  ambition,  and  the  general  difficulties  of  travel  in 
Spanish  American  countries  such  as  deter  any  but  those  of 
special  aptitude.  In  the  Alps,  civilisation  presses  up  to  the 
foot  of  the  perpetual  snows,  and  villages,  hotels,  and  guides 
are  within  easy  reach.  It  is  not  so  with  the  Cordillera  of 
Ecuador,  Bolivia,  Peru,  and  Chile,  where  the  snowy  peaks 
rise  from  among  uninhabited  deserts  in  most  cases,  or  sterile 
plateaux,  where  the  primitive  hut  of  the  Indian  often  offers 
the  only  hospitality  to  be  secured  after  arduous  leagues  in 
the  saddle.  The  Andes  offer  their  own  peculiar  attractions 
in  their  magnificent  solitudes,  and  what  they  lack  in  being 
unclothed  and  treeless  is  made  up  by  glorious  cloud  effects 
and  often  cloudless  skies,  and  a  certain  attractive  environ- 
ment consequent  upon  the  character  of  the  native  inhabi- 
tants, and  the  vestiges  of  an  ancient  civihsation.  In  Ecuador 
the  completion  of  the  Quito-Guayaquil  railway  has  rendered 
of  much  easier  access  the  great  peaks  of  the  Andes  of  Ecua- 
dor, such  as  Chimborazo  and  others,  but  in  the  four  thou- 
sand miles  of  Cordillera  stretching  southward  through  Peru 
and  Chile,  there  are  extensive  regions  without  any  means 
of  communication  except  the  primitive  mule-trails,  separ- 
ated by  wide  stretches  of  desert,  as  approached  from  the 
coast. 

Apart  from  the  risks  and  discomforts  of  travel  in  these 
regions  is  the  added  difficulty  of  mountain  sickness,  known 
as  soroche.     This  is  partly  due  to  the  diminished  pressure  on 


228  CENTRAL   AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

the  brain  and  other  organs,  consequent  on  the  rarefied  air  ; 
for  at  such  elevations  there  is  but  the  weight  of  half  an  atmo- 
sphere. Soroche  takes  the  form  of  severe  vomiting  and  excru- 
ciating headache,  in  its  worst  phases,  the  nausea  being  some- 
what similar  to  sea-sickness.  Persons  of  weak  heart  are 
advised  not  to  attempt  elevations  much  above  8,000  to 
10,000  feet  in  the  Andean  countries.  Yet  some  of  the  largest 
towns  of  the  interior  are  situated  at  higher  elevations,  and 
there  are  villages  which  might  look  down,  as  from  their 
altitudes,  upon  the  summit  of  Mont  Blanc.  The  highest 
inhabited  places  on  the  globe  are,  in  fact,  encountered  in 
Peru  and  Bolivia.  Many  people  are  immune  from  the 
soroche,  but  others  are  unable  to  withstand  it  and  are  utterly 
prostrated.  Death  has  ensued  in  some  cases.  Bodily 
and  mental  agitation  should  be  avoided  in  expeditions  at 
these  great  elevations  ;  alcohol  should  be  used  sparingly, 
or  not  at  all,  and  the  same  may  be  said  of  tobacco.  The 
face  and  neck  should  be  enveloped  in  some  warm  material 
whilst  journeying,  and  the  knitted  masks  made  by  the 
Indians,  which  they  wear  themselves,  and  the  boas  of  vicuiia 
fur  are  among  the  best  means  of  protection  from  the  keen 
atmosphere  of  these  high  inclement  regions  of  sparsely 
inhabited  plateaux  and  perpetual  snow.  The  natives  put 
forward  various  remedies  against  the  soroche.  One  of 
these*  is  the  nibbling  of  cakes  of  the  native  brown  sugar, 
which  forms  an  important  part  of  the  diet  of  the  Indians 
of  the  uplands.  The  chewing  of  the  coca  leaf,  another  of 
the  most  highly  prized  commodities  of  these  people,  is  also 
recommended.  The  mastication  of  this,  of  course,  liberates 
a  small  portion  of  cocaine,  the  drug  which  is  made  from  these 
leaves.  The  powers  of  endurance  which  the  Indians  derive 
from  the  mastication  of  these  leaves  is  remarkable.  Soroche 
does  not  only  depend  upon  elevation  :  it  is  more  severe 
in  some  places  than  others  at  similar  altitudes,  due  to  local 
causes. 

A  further  malady  to  be  guarded  against  in  the  snowy 
Andes  is  that  of  snow-blindness.  The  ordinary  blue  spec- 
tacles are  the  best  preventative,  but  the  natives  often  adopt 

*  Found  efficacious  by  the  author. 


THE    REPUBLICS    OF    THE    ANDES— PERU    229 

the  method  of  painting  a  dark  circle  round  the  eye,  which 
apparently  has  some  beneficial  effect  against  the  glare.  A 
severe  attack  of  snow-blindness  causes  the  face  to  swell 
severely  under  the  eyes  ;  so  much  so  that  sight  is  temporarily 
lost.  This  malady  is  known  locally  as  senwipe,  and  a  remedy 
is  there  used  in  a  certain  root  boiled  and  mashed  and  applied 
as  a  poultice.  The  mountain  sickness  or  soroche  is  felt  even 
by  passengers  upon  the  high  railways  such  as  the  Oroya  and 
other  lines,  and  whole  car  loads  of  passengers  are  afflicted 
at  times,  on  reaching  the  higher  elevations,  with  headache 
and  nausea. 

The  change  from  the  bleak  highlands  of  the  Andes,  the 
sterile,  treeless  punas,  to  the  warm  intermontane  valleys,  and 
lowlands  of  the  eastern  slope,  is  very  rapid.  The  Mon- 
tafia  of  Peru  produces  all  the  fruits  of  the  tropics.  Sugar 
cane,  chocolate,  cotton,  and  coffee  are  cultivated,  but  the 
difficulties  of  transport  have  prevented  rapid  development 
of  the  region.  The  chocolate  is  of  excellent  quality,  as  is 
the  coffee.  The  sugar  is  consumed  locally.  In  this  Peru- 
vian Montafia,  in  its  upper  regions,  nature  has  been  lavish 
of  her  products  and  opportunities.  The  rancher  who  may 
take  up  his  abode  there,  with  a  small  amount  of  capital,  may 
rapidly  acquire  estates  and  wealth.  Abundant  harvests  of 
almost  every  known  product  can  be  raised  in  a  minimum  of 
time.  It  is  sufficient  to  cut  down  and  burn  the  brush  and 
scratch  the  soil  and  sow  with  any  seed,  to  recover  returns 
of  a  hundred  for  one.  Sugar  cane,  vines,  maize,  cocoa,  coffee, 
and  a  host  of  products  can  be  raised.  The  sugar  cane,  once 
planted,  yields  perpetually :  some  existing  plantations  being 
more  than  a  hundred  years  old.  The  cane  frequently  measures 
30  feet  in  height,  and  is  cut  seven  to  nine  months  after 
sprouting. 

The  rivers  of  eastern  Peru,  which  have  been  described 
in  the  chapter  on  the  Amazon  valley,  are  valuable  means  of 
communication  for  the  Montana  region,  and  are  indeed 
often  the  only  means  of  transport.  This  great  network  of 
waterways,  navigable  for  canoe,  raft,  and  steamer,  intersect 
vast  areas  of  territory  at  present  uncultivated,  but  of  much 
value    for    the   future.      These   great    lands,   some   forest- 


230  CENTRAL   AND   SOUTH  AMERICA 

covered,  others  open  plains,  are  capable  of  cultivation  and 
food  production  on  a  large  scale.  At  present  the  difficulty 
of  access  and  of  getting  in  supplies  or  taking  out  produce 
present  a  barrier  to  economise  development  :  and  notwith- 
standing the  possibilities  of  fluvial  transport,  the  region 
cannot  progress  until  it  is  approached  by  railways.  The  cost 
of  roads  and  railways  in  such  territory  is  naturally  heavy, 
due  to  the  broken  nature  of  the  ground  and  the  considerable 
rainfall ;  but  it  is  only  a  question  of  time,  possibly  the  near 
future,  when  these  remote  territories  will  be  as  valuable 
in  their  way  as  the  lands  of  Canada  and  the  United  States,  or 
those  of  Argentina.  Concessions  from  the  government  of 
these  lands  can  be  obtained  under  railway  or  road-buildings 
obhgations.  The  aggregate  navigable  length  of  the  Peru- 
vian Amazon  waterways  is  calculated,  for  all  kinds  of  craft, 
at  20,000  miles  in  the  rainy  season  :  as  described  in  the 
chapter  upon  the  Amazon  valley,  falling  to  5,800  miles  in 
the  dry  season.  A  system  of  wireless  telegraphy  has  been 
established  through  the  Montana  to  Lima  from  Iquitos, 
upon  a  German  plan. 

The  cocaine  shrub  is  largely  grown,  both  in  the  northern 
Montana,  as  before  mentioned,  and  in  the  southern,  and 
no  other  part  of  the  world  produces  it  ;  it  being  peculiar 
to  the  upper  Amazon  valley  of  Peru  and  Ecuador.  Another 
famous  product  is  quinine,  indigenous  and  peculiar  to  Peru 
and  Bolivia.  Quinine  was  just  brought  to  notice  from  having 
been  used  as  a  remedy  for  the  wife  of  a  Peruvian  viceroy — • 
Chinchon — who  had  fallen  ill  of  a  tertian  fever,  and  it  was 
known  as  chinchona  afterwards.  Its  qualities,  however,  had 
been  earlier  known  to  the  natives  :  as  were  the  sustaining 
qualities  of  the  coca  shrub  leaves.  The  price  has  fallen  due 
to  the  plantations  made  in  Ceylon,  at  the  initiative  of  the 
British  government.  Coffee  is  also  a  valuable  product  of 
the  Montana,  and  in  the  Chanchamayo  valley  a  British 
coffee  growing  colony  was  established  years  ago,  but  did 
not  flourish  very  freely,  due  to  difficulties  of  transport. 

The  rubber  of  the  Montafla  is  one  of  the  most  valuable 
products  of  Peru,  but  the  rubber  forests  are  still  of  difficult 
access.     The  matter  is  more  fully  dealt  with  in  the  chapter 


THE    REPUBLICS    OF    THE    ANDES— PERU     231 

upon  the  Amazon  valley.  Peru  has  suffered  greatly,  as 
regards  her  national  reputation,  by  reason  of  the  Putumayo 
atrocities  in  this  connection.  It  was  something  of  a  terrible 
irony  of  fate  that  in  a  land  whose  people  for  unknown  cen- 
turies, and  up  to  only  four  hundred  years  ago,  lived  under 
social  laws  "  so  beneficent  as  had  never  been  known  under 
any  ancient  kings  of  Asia,  Africa,  or  Europe,  or  under  any 
Christian  monarch  " — laws  recorded  by  a  reliable  historian 
and  capable  of  verification  by  the  traveller  and  student  to- 
day— should,  in  the  twentieth  century,  have  been  the  scene 
of  the  ruination  and  wholesale  torture  and  murder  of  tribes 
of  its  defenceless  and  industrious  inhabitants.  Under  the 
Incas  of  Peru,  as  recorded  by  the  Inca-Spanish  historian, 
Garcilaso  de  La  Vega*  and  other  early  writers,  human  blood 
was  never  shed  purposely  ;  every  inhabitant  was  provided 
for,  and  had  a  place  in  a  well-ordered  social  economic  plan  ; 
there  was  no  such  condition  as  beggary  or  destitution  :  the 
people  were  instructed  by  statute  to  help  each  other  co- 
operatively ;  injustice  and  corruption  were  unknown  : 
and  there  was  a  belief  in  a  Supreme  Director  of  the  Universe. 
Under  the  Peruvian  repubUc  and  the  regimen  of  capitaUsm 
to-day,  tribes  of  useful  people  of  this  same  land  have  been 
defrauded,  driven  into  slavery,  and  destroyed,  and  in  some 
cases  they  were  tortured  to  death  under  the  mandates  of 
task  masters  in  the  employ  of  a  foreign  company — under  a 
republican  government,  in  a  Christianised  country  (in  one 
case  at  the  behest  of  the  native  agents  of  a  company  with 
headquarters  in  London) :  the  "  crime  "  of  these  unfortunates 
being  that  they  did  not  always  bring  in  rubber  sufficiently 
fast — work  for  which  they  practically  received  no  payment 
— to  satisfy  their  taskmasters.  In  order  to  obtain  rubber,  so 
that  the  luxurious  tyred  motor  cars  of  civilisation  might 
multiply  in  the  cities  of  Christendom,  the  dismal  forests  of 
the  Amazon  have  echoed  with  the  cries  of  despairing  and 
tortured  Indian  aborigines.  These  were  not  things  of  the 
imagination,  but  actual  occurrences,  as  set  forth  by  the 
witnesses.     The  Peruvian  government  had  long  known  of 

*  Vide  "The  Putumayo;  the  Devil's  Paradise":  matters  not  necessarily 
discredited  by  the  notorious  Casement  affair. 


232  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH  AMERICA 

the  abuses  committed  upon  the  Indians  of  the  mainland, 
but  had  neglected  to  remedy  them;  and  through  influence 
or  connivance  the  chief  culprits  escaped  or  were  exonerated. 
Rubber  has  left  a  dark  stain  in  Peru  which  it  will  take 
long  to  eradicate;  and  Bolivian  rubber  has  had  a  similar 
reputation,  if  in  lesser  degree;  and  under  the  curtain  of  the 
forest  abuses  still  exist. 

The  principal  source  of  Peruvian  wealth  is  agricultural, 
not  forestal  or  mineral :  the  native  population  being  essen- 
tially land-working,  and  the  Cholo  easily  deserts  the  mine 
for  the  chacara  or  farm.  Many  of  the  Cholos  of  the  interior 
are,  as  described,  "  small  holders,"  and  have  been  so  from 
the  time  of  the  Incas  :  and  they  are  protected  to  some  extent 
by  law,  in  order  that  their  holdings  may  not  be  alienated. 
Most  of  the  best  land,  however,  of  the  coast  and  the  valleys 
is  in  the  possession  of  large  wealthy  landowners,  who  do  not 
sell  or  subdivide.  The  value  of  the  sugar  export  is  more 
than  /^2, 000,000  per  annum,  and  a  very  high  yield  is 
obtained  from  the  soil,  superior  to  almost  all  other  lands. 
The  cane  can  be  cultivated  on  the  Pacific  slopes  up  to  an 
elevation  of  4,500  feet,  but  the  lowlands  show  the  best 
plantations  :  and  to  6,000  feet  on  the  Amazon  slope.  The 
cane  growing  is  largely  farmed  out  to  small  farmers,  and  the 
cane  purchased  by  the  mills  ;  rent,  tools,  etc.,  being  paid  on 
a  percentage  of  the  produce.  The  rum  manufacture  is  a 
source  of  considerable  profit.  British  capital  is  largely  in- 
terested in  the  sugar  estates,  especially  near  Caiiete,  at  Santa 
Barbara,  and  in  the  north,  near  Chimbote.  The  British 
Sugar  Company  at  Canete  produce  about  30,000  tons  of 
sugar  per  annum.  Sugar  machinery  of  the  value  of  £25,000 
was  imported  into  the  Department  of  Lambayeque  in  1911, 
from  British  sources. 

Cotton,  like  sugar  cane,  requires  artificial  irrigation,  as 
described  for  the  coast  valleys.  Peruvian  cotton  has  an 
excellent  name  in  foreign  markets,  and  the  production  is 
increasing  ;  new  lands  being  placed  under  irrigation.  The 
varieties  of  cotton  cultivated  in  Peru  are  the  Egyptian  or 
"  Gossypium  herbaceum,"  grown  in  the  Valley  of  Lima  and 
lea,  the  plantations  being  found  from  the  seashore  to  some 


THE    REPUBLICS    OF    THE    ANDES— PERU     233 

sixty  miles  in  land  ;  the  "  Gossypium  Peruvianum,"  or  native 
cotton,  grown  near  Piura  and  lea  ;  and  the  "  Gossypium 
carbardense,"  with  its  varieties  known  as  Sea  Island  and 
Mitafifi,  grown  near  Huacho  and  Supe.  The  kinds  of 
cottons  from  Peru  best  known  on  the  British  markets  are 
the  full  rough  Peruvian,  which  comes  from  Piura,  and  the 
moderate  rough,  which  is  produced  in  lea  and  exported 
from  Pisco. 

There  are  seven  large  cotton-producing  mills  in  the  re- 
public, which  supply  more  than  a  quarter  of  the  cotton 
goods  consumed.  British  capital  controls  the  Vitarte  mills 
and  plantations,  which  are  situated  a  few  miles  to  the  east 
of  Lima,  irrigated  and  actuated  from  the  river  Rimac. 
New  appliances  have  recently  been  installed  which  will 
further  curtail  the  imports,  especially  of  dyed  fabrics,  from 
England.  The  Piura  region  is,  however,  the  most  important 
cotton  producing  centre.  Peru  ranks  twelfth  among  the 
cotton  producing  countries  of  the  world.  The  average 
annual  importation  of  cotton  goods — 1907-8-9 — was  of  a 
value  of  £600,000,  of  which  57  per  cent,  was  of  British  origin, 
18  per  cent.  German,  and  3|  per  cent.  American. 

Alfalfa,  quinua,  potatoes,  olives  are  other  important 
products,  and  wheat  and  fruits  might  be  more  extensively 
grown. 

The  cattle,  live  stock,  and  wool  industry  of  the  uplands 
is  of  some  importance,  with  ranches  containing  many 
thousands  of  head  of  cattle.  The  cattle  are  small  and  bony, 
and  the  puma  sheep  small,  but  some  attempts  are  being  made 
to  improve  the  breed.  Good  mules  are  raised,  and  small, 
but  wiry  horses,  both  adapted  for  the  mountain  travel.  The 
famous  llama  abounds  in  the  uplands,  its  native  home,  and 
both  the  llama  and  alpaca,  which  much  resemble  each  other, 
are  exceedingly  valuable  for  their  wool,  whose  export  is 
made  principally  from  Arequipa.  The  llama  is  the  most 
prized  possession  of  the  upland  Indian,  who  almost  alone 
understands  its  breeding  and  maintenance.  The  llama  of 
large  size  reaches  6|  feet  to  the  head.  It  is  a  beast  of 
burden,  and  performs  all  the  carrying  trade  in  certain  dis- 
tricts.    It  is  exceedingly  docile  and  costs  nothing  to  keep. 


234  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

as  it  feeds  on  the  natural  pasture  ;  and  its  peculiar  and 
graceful  figure  is  the  most  common  object  of  the  high  bleak 
uplands  of  Peru  and  Bolivia.  The  vicuna,  a  relative  of  the 
llama,  is  also  encountered  in  large  bands,  but  in  a  wild  state 
completely,  as  it  cannot  be  domesticated. 

Mining  in  Peru  has  already  been  touched  upon.  The 
enormous  gold-bearing  deposits  on  the  summit  and  slopes  of 
the  Peruvian  and  Bolivian  Andes,  contain  probably  as  much 
gold  as  was  contained  in  California  and  Oregon,  but  whether 
it  lends  itself  equally  to  recovery  remains  to  be  seen.  These 
deposits  are  glacial,  tertiary,  and  alluvial,  and  the  result  of 
the  natural  draining  of  lake-depressions.  Whole  areas  of 
pampa  are  impregnated  with  gold,  and  moraines  miles  in 
length  carry  gold  in  apparently  paying  quantities,  as  already 
described  ;  and  both  "  monitors  "  and  dredges  are  employed 
in  gold  recovery.  Water  in  abundance  is  the  prime  adjunct 
of  their  operations,  however,  and  upon  the  very  water-parting 
of  the  Cordillera  this  offers  difficulties.  Alluvial  gold  is 
mainly  found  in  the  districts  of  Sandia  and  Carabaya,  of 
which  Poto,  San  Juan,  Aporoma  and  others  are  examples  : 
and  upon  the  upper  Maraiion,  east  of  Huaraz,  and  other 
affluents  of  the  Amazon.  Gold  in  the  form  of  ore  is  gener- 
ally associated  with  other  metals,  largely  as  ferruginous 
quartz.  Among  the  principal  districts  where  such  ores 
abound  are  :  on  the  uplands  and  eastern  slope  :  Pataz, 
Huanuco,  Chuquitambo,  Huancavelica,  Cuzco,  Cotabamba, 
Aymares,  Paucatambo,  Santo  Domingo,  etc. ;  and  on  the 
Pacific  slope :  Salpo,  Otuzco,  Huaylas,  Yungay,  Ocros, 
Caiiete,  lea,  Nazca,  Andaray,  Arequipa,  etc.  A  very  few 
of  these  districts  show  profitable  or  any  working  of  gold 
mines  at  present,  although  doubtless  they  will  attract 
attention  in  the  future.  The  broken  nature  of  the  country, 
whilst  offering  difficulties  of  transport,  has  certain  compen- 
sations in  the  water-power  in  the  ravines,  and  in  the  possi- 
bilities of  adit-mining  ;  the  lodes  often  crossing  the  hills, 
with  their  outcrop  ascending  thousands  of  feet  above  the  floor 
of  the  ravines.  Lodes  are  often  miles  in  length ;  and  3  feet 
to  8  feet  in  width,  carrying  from  i  oz.  to  5  oz.  of  gold  per  ton, 
often    in   conjunction   with    pyrites.     In   many   cases   the 


THE    REPUBLICS    OF    THE    ANDES— PERU     235 

oxidised  ores  at  the  surface  have  been  extensively  worked  in 
primitive  manner  by  native  miners — generally  a  proof  of 
value — and  the  ores  crushed  and  treated  with  quicksilver 
in  stone  mills  at  the  stream  bed.  Thousands  of  such  work- 
ings exist.  In  Peru  are  some  enormous  mineral  lodes  : 
among  the  largest  in  the  world.  Copper  and  coal  are 
both  exceedingly  important  in  Peru,  and  offer  consider- 
able field  for  industrial  effort.  The  rapid  advance  of  Peru  as 
a  copper-producing  country  is  shewn  by  the  increase  in  the 
output  of  the  metal,  mainly  from  the  great  Cerro  de  Pasco 
mines.  Quicksilver  has  been  a  famous  product,  both  at 
Huancavelica  and  Chonta,  near  Huallanca;  the  latter 
place  being  an  important  mineral  centre  not  far  from 
Huaraz.  The  coal  and  copper  bearing  districts,  which  lie 
in  that  part  of  Peru,  extend  over  a  considerable  zone,  but 
copper  exists  in  the  south  also.  Lead  is  plentiful,  generally 
in  conjunction  with  silver,  and  numerous  small  native 
oficinas  or  lixiviation  establishments  exist  for  the  treatment 
of  ores  ;  as  well  as  several  modern  smelting  works  ;  notably 
those  of  Casapalca  and  Cerro  de  Pasco.  Silver  ores  are 
often  extremely  rich,  and  great  fortunes  have  been  made  by 
Peruvian  mine  owners,  and  even  by  poor  miners.  They 
occur  mainly  as  oxides  and  sulphides.  Typical  districts  are 
those  of  Huaylas,  Yauli,  Quespesisa,  Santa  Ynes,  Caylloma, 
etc.  Zinc  is  also  plentiful.  The  coal  is  of  various  kinds, 
both  anthracite  and  bituminous,  and  often  occurs  in  enor- 
mous tilted  or  vertical  strata,  exposed  at  the  outcrop,  and 
capable  of  mining  by  adits.  Enormous  visible  quantities  of 
coal  exist  ;  hundreds  of  millions  of  tons  in  certain  districts. 
On  the  coast,  as  at  Paracas  and  near  Trujillo  there  are 
deposits  upon  which  some  prospect  work  has  been  done, 
close  to  tide  water.  Petroleum  is  found  in  two  fields : 
that  near  Tumbez,  and  at  Talara  and  Zorritos  ;  and  that 
of  Titicaca,  in  the  Department  of  Puno,  and  is  of  consider- 
able importance.  The  rarer  metals  of  wolfram,  molybdenite, 
bismuth,  cobalt,  nickel,  etc.,  abound,  and  many  other 
minerals  of  commercial  value.  Nitrate  has  been  found  at 
Caraveli. 

The  mining  laws  of  Peru  are  by  no  means  onerous,  and 


236  CENTRAL   AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

everything  is  done  to  attract  capital  to  the  industry  :  but 
the  methods  of  native  mine-owners  in  negotiation  often 
leave  much  to  be  desired.  The  mining  tax  is  30  dollars 
per  hectare  :  equal  to  £3  per  2|  acres.  Labour  is  moderately 
plentiful  in  certain  districts,  and  earns  a  low  rate  of  wage, 
from  IS.  to  3s.  per  day  ;  but  contract  work  is  generally 
preferred  by  the  native  miner,  who  must  be  regarded  as  a 
tolerably  good  worker.  Mining  is  not  much  affected  by 
political  disturbance,  and  tenure  is  secure,  as  long  as  the 
tax  is  paid.  The  government  has  made  a  detailed  investi- 
gation of  the  mineral  resources  of  the  republic,  carried  out 
by  the  students  and  graduates  of  the  national  mining  school. 
The  means  of  communication  and  transport  in  the  Andean 
countries  have  been  created  under  great  expense  and  against 
formidable  natural  obstacles.  The  railways  on  the  western 
side  of  South  America  consist  mainly  in  isolated  lines  proper 
to  each  republic.  They  are,  however,  growing  now  into  a 
general  system.  In  Peru  the  Oroya  hne,  starting  at  Callao, 
passes  through  Lima  and  ascends  the  western  slope  of  the 
Andes  to  an  altitude  of  15,660  feet,  with  a  length  of 
128  miles  from  tide-water  to  terminus.  It  throws  out  a 
branch  line  northwardly  to  Cerro  de  Pasco,  the  important 
mining  centre,  about  130  miles  long  ;  and  a  branch  south* 
wards  to  Huancayo,  about  60  miles  long,  designed  ultimately 
to  reach  other  towns  of  the  highlands  and  ultimately  to 
join  at  Cuzco,  with  the  southern  railway  from  Arequipa  and 
La  Paz,  which  ascends  from  the  coast  at  Mollendo.  The 
Oroya  railway  ascends  the  valley  of  the  Rimac,  gaining  its 
great  elevation  by  a  series  of  switchbacks,  and  at  its  highest 
point  crosses  the  perpetual  snow-line.  The  line  was  an 
exceedingly  costly  piece  of  work,  and  can  never  pay  interest 
upon  its  original  capital ;  which  was  rendered  additionally 
large  by  fraudulent  financial  methods  at  the  time  of  its  in- 
ception :  and  in  addition  the  cost  of  upkeep  is  very  heavy. 
The  Oroya  line  is  perhaps  the  most  audacious  piece  of  railway 
engineering  in  the  world,  and  credit  therefore  must  be  given 
to  its  North  American  constructors.  It  is  remarkable  as  a 
scenic  hne,  and  is  one  of  the  chief  matters  of  interest  in  Peru. 
The  line  is  now  under  construction  eastwardly  to  the  head 


THE    REPUBLICS    OF    THE    ANDES-PERU     237 

of  steam  navigation  on  the  Ucayali  river,  which  will  give 
an  outlet  to  the  fluvial  system  of  the  Amazon,  and  be  of 
incalculable  importance  to  Peru. 

The  Southern  Railway  of  Peru,  ascending  from  the  coast 
at  Mollendo,  serves  Arequipa,  and  crossing  the  Cordillera 
at  14,660  feet  elevation  enters  the  great  Titicaca  basin :  and 
extends  northwardly  to  Cuzco.  A  steamer  line  upon  the 
lake  reaches  La  Paz,  the  capital  of  Bolivia,  in  the  south. 
The  southern  railway  of  Peru  has  a  total  length  of  about 
450  miles,  or  with  the  Bolivian  portion  711  miles  :  and  it  is 
a  remarkable  piece  of  engineering  work,  second  only  to  the 
Oroya  line. 

From  Lima  northwardly  along  the  coast  a  line  of  railway 
is  being  pushed  slowly  ;  and  a  southern  coast-line  is  also 
projected,  towards  Pisco  and  lea.  There  are  various  short 
lines  running  from  coast  ports  across  the  flatfish  littoral,  but 
these,  as  before  stated,  all  terminate  at  the  foot  of  the  Andes, 
to  cross  which  is  at  present  beyond  the  economic  resources 
of  the  country.  All  the  principal  railways  of  Peru  are 
controlled  and,  in  general,  efficiently  operated  by  a  British 
controlled  company,  known  as  the  Peruvian  Corporation. 

The  position  of  the  Peruvian  Corporation  in  1911-12  was 
shewn  by  the  report  of  that  company,  which  states  that 
after  provision  of  7  per  cent,  for  amortisation  and  interest  on 
the  debenture  issues  of  ;£5,400,ooo,  the  net  revenue  account, 
including  £57,500  brought  forward,  shewed  a  balance  of 
£410,700.  The  total  revenue,  including  the  government's 
guarantee  payment,  guano  profits,  etc.,  amounted  to 
£647,000.  For  the  year  1919-20  the  income  was  nearly 
£600,000,  but  for  192 1  this  was  reduced  by  a  sixth,  due 
partly  to  non-payment  of  the  Peruvian  government  annuity. 
Guano  shipments  yielded  £36,000.  The  enormous  interests 
controlled  by  this  company  and  the  wide  field  covered  are 
greatly  influenced  by  the  growth  and  condition  of  Peru,  and 
the  prosperity  of  the  enterprise  and  the  republic  are  much 
bound  up  in  each  other.  The  capital  of  the  Perux-ian  Corpora- 
tion, in  debentures  and  shares,  reaches  nearly  £22,000,000, 
held  in  many  hands,  both  European  and  North  American. 
Proposals  were  recently  made  to  hand  over  the  possession 


238  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

of  the  railways — which  are  held  under  a  long  lease — per- 
manently to  the  corporation,  but  this  was  opposed,  by  the 
senate,  and  wisely,  the  disinterested  economist  may  consider. 

The  aggregate  length  of  the  railways  in  Peru  is  about  1,500 
miles,  a  small  mileage  for  so  vast  an  extent  of  territory  as 
the  republic  possesses. 

Of  foreigners  in  Peru  there  are  few,  in  comparison  with 
Brazil  and  Argentina.     There  are  no  colonies,   with  the 
exception  of  the  small  German  settlement  of  Pozuzo,  and 
the  British  of  thePerene,  both  in  the  Montaiia,  existing  under 
difficult  conditions.     There  is  no  considerable  flow  of  immi- 
gration into  Peru  so  far,  notwithstanding  the  vast  import- 
ance to  the  country  of  a  supply  of  foreign  labour,  capital, 
ideas,   and  energy.     This  necessity  is  fully  recognised  by 
Peruvian  statesmen,  but  conditions  have  not  proved  suffi- 
ciently  favourable   for   the   emigrant,   or   have   not   been 
brought  to  his  notice.     It  cannot  be  said  that  there  is  a 
field  for  the  foreign  settler  without  means.     On  the  coast 
lands  irrigation  works  are  necessary  before  agriculture  can 
flourish  ;   and  all  the  good  lands  capable  of  such  are  under 
ownership,  except  those  that  require  large  capital  for  such 
hydraulic  works.     The  British  are  mainly  represented  in 
Peru  by  the  agents  of  the  large  trading  houses,  sugar  plan- 
tations and  cotton    mills,    steamer   lines,    cable   company, 
mines,   bank  and  other  commercial  and  industrial  enter- 
prises :  and  the  total  British  community  is  a  small,  although 
important,  one.   German  interests — especially  banking — tend 
to  increase.     Americans  own  and  operate  the  great  Cerro  de 
Pasco  mines,  and  are  engaged  upon  various  railway  works 
and  projects  :  and  have  a  good  deal  of  money  invested  there- 
in.   Italians,  French,  and  Spaniards  have  many  good  shops — 
articles  of  clothing,  groceries  and  merchandise.     The  Itahan 
colony  is  the  most  numerous  of  any  :  and  Italians  are  met 
with  throughout  the  republic,  generally  engaged  in  smaller 
branches  of  commerce.     Foreigners  are  greatly  welcomed  : 
and  British  and  American  gold  greatly  sought  by  mine- 
owners  in  the  interior.     To  take  up  mining  claims  and  sell 
to  a  foreign  syndicate  is  often  an  ambition  of   the  people 
of  the  interior. 


THE    REPUBLICS    OF   THE   ANDES— PERU      239 

The  manufacturing  industries  of  Peru  are  limited  in 
number,  and  are  concerned  mainly  with  the  treatment  of 
agricultural  material  and  mineral  products.  They  are 
distributed  throughout  the  repubhc,  and  include  the 
making  of  sugar  and  rum,  textile  fabrics  from  cotton  and 
wool,  as  elsewhere  described,  wines  and  spirits  from  grapes, 
chocolate  from  cacao,  cigars  and  cigarettes,  and  the  smelting 
of  ores.  The  Santa  Catalina  factory  at  Lima  produces  cloth, 
blankets,  and  underclothing  ;  and  is  an  institution  of  con- 
siderable local  importance.  There  are  cotton  factories  also 
at  Lima,  lea,  and  Arequipa  :  and  large  woollen  factories 
at  Lima  and  Cuzco.  The  manufacture  of  counterfeit  spirits 
and  liqueurs  at  Lima  and  Callao  is  carried  on,  but  ought  to 
be  suppressed.  There  are  good  breweries  at  Lima  Callao, 
Cuzco,  and  Arequipa,  and  the  consumption  of  beer  tends  to 
increase.  The  making  of  "  Panama  "  hats  from  the  fine 
toquilla  fibre,  and  the  weaving  of  mats  and  ponchos  is  an 
excellent  industry  of  the  natives  of  the  interior,  inherited 
from  Inca  times.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  future 
will  shew  an  increase  of  miscellaneous  manufacture  in  Peru, 
with  foreign  capital  :  and  there  is  already  a  call  for  many 
branches  of  small  manufacture,  in  which  capital  can  be  well 
employed. 

The  financial  record  of  Peru  presents  a  picture  as  chequered 
almost  as  its  physical  character.  Notwithstanding  the 
enormous  natural  resources  of  the  country,  this  record  has 
been,  until  very  recent  years  one  of  disaster  and  discredit. 
Peru  was  once  described  as  a  "  beggar  sitting  upon  a  moun- 
tain of  gold,"  and  the  description  is  still  apphcable,  if  to  a 
less  extent.  The  internal  strife  which  followed  independ- 
ence prevented  the  development  of  the  natural  wealth  of 
the  land.  Later,  the  export  of  guano  and  nitrate — a  too 
easily  gotten  source  of  wealth — supplied  the  national  treasury 
with  overflowing  funds.  These  were  squandered  in  corrupt 
practises,  nepotism,  and  in  extravagant  enterprises,  which 
brought  in  their  train  loss  and  confiscation,  bankruptcy, 
and  the  surrender  of  the  principal  sources  of  revenue  to 
foreign  creditors,  in  satisfaction  of  the  obligations  entered 
mto  by  the  republic's  often  incompetent  rulers  and  economists. 


240  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

The  history  of  the  numerous  loans  and  conversion  of  loans 
contracted  abroad  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  of  any 
country,  and  in  1875  the  enormous  total  of  £49,000,000 
represented  the  foreign  indebtedness  of  the  nation,  upon 
which  the  annual  interest  of  £2, 500,000  was  beyond  the  power 
of  the  exchequer.  In  1876  the  payment  of  the  interest 
was  suspended,  with  disasterous  results  to  the  national 
credit.  In  the  war  of  1879-1882  the  principal  source  of 
income  :  the  guano  and  nitrate  deposits :  were  taken  by 
Chile.  In  1889  the  foreign  debt  with  arrear  of  interest  had 
amounted  to £54,000,000, and  relief  was  onlysecuredat  length 
by  a  contract  entered  into  with  the  foreign  enterprise  known 
as  the  Peruvian  Corporation,  a  contract  which  took  the 
burden  from  Peru,  and  had  the  effect  of  turning  a  threatened 
heavy  loss  to  the  foreign  bondholders  into  a  profit. 

Peru  exhibits  a  steady  if  small  growth  as  regards  revenue 
and  commerce.  The  revenue  in  1910  was  £2,800,000,  and 
the  expenditure  £2,655,000,  and  in  191 1  £3,227,000  and 
£2,833,000,  respectively.  In  1902  the  exports  were  of  a  value 
of  £3,704,000  and  imports  £3,428,000 :  whilst  in  1911  they 
had  grown  to  £7,422,000  and  £6,371,000.  In  1919  they  were 
respectively  £P26,900,ooo  and  £Pi2, 200,000. 

At  the  close  of  191 2,  Peru  experienced  a  change  of  govern- 
ment and  a  new  president  was  elected,  or  rather  appointed 
by  congress  due  to  electioneering  disturbances  and  illegalities. 
The  retiring  president  went  out  with  a  shower  of  stones 
and  curses,  and  an  attempt  at  lynching,  notwithstanding 
that  he  had  done  well  by  the  country;  and  the  incoming 
president  was  received  with  a  shower  of  flowers  and  laudatory 
enthusiasm.  Such,  however,  is  often  the  lot  of  the  public 
man  in  Latin  America.  At  least,  no  political  murders  were 
committed,  such  as  have  too  often  marked  the  history  of 
the  republic.  The  ejected  president  was  re-elected  for  the 
present  period  (1922).  The  port  of  Callao  has  suffered  of 
late  from  serious  strikes  for  better  pay  and  shorter  hours. 

The  future  of  Peru  depends  upon  the  stability  of  its 
government,  the  better  education  and  protection  of  its 
lower  classes,  and  the  more  rapid  development  of  the  resources 


THE    REPUBLICS    OF    THE    ANDES— PERU     241 

and  great  land  areas  of  the  republic,  coupled  with  a  reason- 
able flow  of  immigration.  Above  all  stands  the  necessity 
for  more  fostering  care  of  the  working  classes,  especially 
the  Cholos  and  agricultural  and  mining  classes  of  the  up- 
lands, and  the  Indian  of  the  forests.  These  people, 
if  they  continue  to  deteriorate  or  are  destroyed,  cannot  be 
replaced.  A  country  will  not  develop  or  prosper  which 
retains  or  monopolises  in  the  hands  of  a  small  upper  class 
the  wealth  and  education  of  the  country.  The  growth  of 
Peruvian  democracy  is  not  an  impossible  condition.  Both 
in  her  soil  and  in  the  character  of  her  people  Peru  contains 
valuable  elements,  which  it  is  now  time  should  begin  to 
progress.  Something  has  been  done,  but  much  remains  to 
be  done.  Peru  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  countries  of 
South  America,  and  worthy  of  a  fuller  life  than  that  it  has 
lived  in  the  past.  Historically  and  topographically  its 
attractions  are  many,  and  it  should  command  the  sympathy 
of  other  nations. 


0 


242  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 


CHAPTER    VH 
THE  INCAS  OF  PERU 

A  heritage  of  the  repubhcs  of  Peru,  BoHvia,  and  Ecuador, 
no  subject  is  of  greater  interest  in  its  particular  field  than 
that  of  the  ancient  civilisation  of  the  Incas.  It  has  fascinated 
many  students  and  readers,  and  the  remains  of  the  buildings 
and  other  structures,  left  by  these  remarkable  people  and 
their  predecessors  and  contemporaries,  are  of  strongest 
attraction  to  the  traveller  in  western  South  America. 
Isolated  upon  the  vast,  elevated  tablelands  and  among  the 
profound  valleys  of  the  Andes,  shut  in  by  high  mountain 
ranges  on  every  hand,  and  cut  off  from  the  rest  of  mankind 
until  four  centuries  ago,  flourished  a  great  empire,  far 
advanced  in  arts,  agriculture,  and  political  economy  :  of 
whose  civihsation  it  may  be  said  that  it  was  superior  in 
many  respects  to  that  which  has  replaced  it.  The  story 
of  the  Incas  and  their  fall  is  one  of  the  greatest  romances  in 
the  world's  literature,  wherein  it  might  be  said  that  truth 
has  been  stranger  than  fiction.* 

It  was  in  the  elevated  and  inaccessible  territory  of  Bohvia, 
Peru,  and  Ecuador  that  the  empire  of  the  Incas  and  their 
predecessors  arose  and  flourished.  The  Inca  regimen 
extended  from  what  is  now  Chile,  to  the  north  throughout 
Peru  and  Bolivia,  into  Ecuador,  a  tract  of  territory  1,200 
miles  long,  and  from  the  Pacific  ocean  on  the  west  to  beyond 
the  eastern  verge  of  the  Andean  tablelands  and  slopes  ;  its 
influence,  though  feebly,  reaching  as  far  as  the  Gran  Chaco 
in  Argentina.  The  remains  of  the  Inca  and  pre-Inca  works 
are  represented  by  massive  stone  temples,  fortresses  and 

*  The  origin  and  civilisation  of  the  Incas  is  discussed  and  the  buildings 
illustrated  in  the  author's  book,  "The  Secret  of  the  Pacific,"  T.  Fisher 
Unwin,  London,  1912. 


THE  INC  AS  OF  PERU  243 

palaces,  roads,  bridges,  aqueducts,  and  tombs,  scattered 
over  this  vast  region,  surrounded  by  innumerable  ruined 
dwelling-places  and  one-time  cultivated  terraces.  Beautiful 
objects  of  pottery,  gold,  and  textile  fabrics  have  been 
preserved,  or  recovered  from  tombs,  shewing  the  clever 
handicraft  of  the  people. 

The  protlems  of  the  origin  and  growth  of  the  early 
Peruvian  civilisation  is  one  which  has  been  much  discussed. 
On  the  one  hand  it  is  considered  to  bear  evidences  of  possible 
derivation  from  Asia  and  Egypt,  in  very  early  times ; 
and  on  the  other  to  be  entirely  self-derived :  the  natural 
reaction  of  man  to  his  environment  in  America.  Much 
controversy  has  been  waged  on  this  point,  and  at  present 
the  respective  theories  seem  to  be  about  equally  balanced. 
Those  who  support  the  exotic  or  imported  theory  point  to 
Bering  Strait  as  the  possible  route  of  entry  from  Asia  into 
America,  whence  a  migration  along  the  Pacific  coast  might 
have  followed.  The  possible  arrival  of  junks  from  Asia, 
which  it  has  been  shewn  have  many  times  drifted  over  to  the 
North  or  South  American  shores,  is  adduced  as  a  further 
source  of  influence.  Another  theory  points  to  the  supposed 
one-time  existence  of  a  submerged  Pacific  continent,  of  which 
Easter  Island  and  its  archaeological  remains  might  be  a 
remnant  ;  or  of  an  origin  in  the  "  lost  continent  "  of  Atlantis, 
upon  whose  gradual  destruction  a  part  of  the  population 
supposedly  went  eastwards  and  formed  the  cradle  of  civihsa- 
tion  of  Egypt  and  Mesopotamia  ;  and  a  part  westwards 
to  found  the  culture  of  the  early  Mexicans  and  Peruvians  ; 
of  which  the  Toltecs,  Mayas,  Aztecs,  Incas  and  pre-Incas 
were  the  descendants.  This,  however,  cannot  be  regarded  as 
more  than  a  mere  idea  at  present,  and  the  question  loses 
itself  in  the  mists  of  fable  and  imagination.  As  regards  the 
autochthonous  or  self-derived  theory,  it  is  reasonable  to 
suppose  that  as  man  came  to  being  and  evolved  a  culture  in 
one  part  of  the  world,  as  in  Egypt  or  Chaldea,  he  may  have 
done  so  equally  in  another,  as  in  Mexico  and  Peru,  and  here 
at  present  the  matter  rests  ;  although  it  is  likely  to  receive 
active  consideration  as  time  goes  on. 

But  whatever  may  be  the  real  truth  of  these  theories 


244  CENTRAL   AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

concerning  the  early  Peruvians,  the  fact  is  estabhshed  that, 
upon  the  coast  and  highlands  of  western  South  America, 
a  civilisation  and  temple-building  art,  and  scientific  agri- 
cultural system,  must  have  been  in  course  of  evolution 
contemporaneously  with  those  of  the  Egyptians  and  the 
Assyrians  ;  for  if  it  be  assumed  that  the  early  Mexican  and 
Peruvian  arts  were  autochthonous,  their  development  could 
scarcely  have  occupied  a  less  period  than  those  of  Egypt  and 
Asia.  The  system  of  social  laws,  which  it  is  a  matter  of 
authentic  history  the  Incas  enjoyed,  were  those  of  a  highly 
organised  commonwealth  under  an  autocratic  but  beneficent 
monarchical  regimen  ;  and  the  system  of  land-holding,  the 
disposal  of  the  natural  and  national  resources  of  the  empire, 
and  the  just  and  humane  administration  of  imperial  and  local 
affairs  were  such  as  have  never  been  surpassed.  Peru  and 
Mexico  may  have  been  partly  civilised  when  the  early  Britons 
were  in  a  primitive  condition,  and  had  the  Incas  of  Peru, 
or  the  Aztecs  and  Mayas  of  Mexico,  developed  a  ship- 
building, as  they  did  a  temple-building  art  and  law-giving 
faculty,  they  might  conceivably  have  set  sail  and  discovered 
the  old  World  before  Colombus  discovered  the  New. 

The  Inca  Empire  flourished,  as  far  as  can  be  ascertained, 
from  the  time  of  the  first  Inca,  Manco  Capac,  who  founded 
the  dynasty  at  the  beginning  of  the  eleventh  century  of  our 
era,  to  the  time  of  the  arrival  of  Pizarro  and  the  overthrow 
of  Atahualpa,  in  1532.  But  the  Incas  were  not  the  first 
civilised  people  of  Peru.  They  were  preceded  by,  and  prob- 
ably inherited  their  civilisation  from,  the  Aymares,  whom 
they  possibly  overthrew.  The  various  mural  remains 
throughout  the  country  are,  therefore,  of  different  people 
and  periods — some  only  nine  to  five  hundred  years  old, 
others  being  of  much  more  remote  epochs,  measured  possibh^ 
by  thousands  of  years. 

The  empire  of  the  Incas,  at  the  time  of  the  conquest  of 
Peru  in  1532,  had  as  its  main  centres  Cuzco  and  Quito,  the 
capital  of  Ecuador,  upon  the  equator  ;  and  these  centres 
were  connected  by  the  famous  Inca  roads,  which  some  his- 
torians— generally  those  who  have  not  seen  them — have 
described  as  equal  to  the  roads  of  the  Romans,  which  state- 


THE   INCAS  OF  PERU  245 

ment  is  far  from  being  true.  They  were,  however,  means  of 
communication  of  the  utmost  value  to  the  empire,  and 
although  nothing  more  than  trails  for  the  llamas,  the  camels 
of  the  Andes,  which  were  the  only  beasts  of  burden  known 
to  the  people,  they  gave  access  from  place  to  place,  and 
were  traversed  by  the  system  of  posts  and  postmen  main- 
tained by  the  Inca  government.  These  roads  were  more 
than  1,100  miles  long.  As  engineering  structures  the  roads 
were  of  some  merit,  crossing  by  rock-hewn  steps  the  summits 
of  the  Andes  above  the  perpetual  snow-line,  passing  swampy 
lands  by  stone  causeways,  and  rivers  by  means  of  the  re- 
markable suspension  bridges  made  of  woven  grass  or  osiers, 
and  by  stone  structures.  There  were  two  main  roads  ;  one 
along  the  high  plateaux  and  summits  of  the  Andes  ;  the 
other  upon  the  lowlands  of  the  coast.  The  principal  groups 
of  buildings  are  in  some  cases  disposed  along  the  line  of  these 
roads,  or  are  adjacent  thereto,  portions  of  the  roads  only 
remaining  here  and  there.  The  ruins  of  most  notable 
occurrence  are  situated  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Cuzco,  and 
upon  the  region  bordering  upon  the  great  Lake  Titicaca. 
Cuzco  is  about  200  miles  from  the  lake,  and  was  the  great 
Mecca  of  the  people  and  the  seat  of  government.  Over- 
looking the  city  is  what  is  perhaps  the  most  remarkable 
pre-historic  building  in  the  New  World ;  the  fortress  of 
Sacsaihuaman,  consisting  in  a  series  of  four  or  more  great 
walls,  from  12  feet  to  25  feet  high,  forming  terraces  up  the 
hillside  1,800  feet  long.  The  walls  are  built  as  great  revet- 
ments, with  twenty  salients  at  regular  intervals,  the  masonry 
being  formed  of  Cyclopean  worked  stones,  which  in  some 
cases  are  nearly  20  feet  high,  weighing  many  tons.  The  walls 
of  this  fortress,  as  well  as  those  of  others  of  the  Inca 
buildings,  shew  the  character  of  the  masonry,  in  which  the 
stones  are  generally  polygonal.  In  some  cases  the  stones 
are  cut  out  to  fit  each  other  in  a  way  such  as  must  have 
involved  much  labour.  Possibly  this  was  meant  as  a  species 
of  wall  bond,  to  resist  earthquake  shocks,  as  in  old  Japanese 
walls.  Notwithstanding  this  diversity  of  surface,  the  contact 
between  the  stones  is  sometimes  so  perfect  that  a  knife-blade 
cannot   be   inserted  ;    and  there  is    no  mortar.     Whatever 


246  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

may  have  been  the  reason  for  this  lack  of  uniformity  in  the 
Inca  masonry,  it  is  curious,  and  the  walls  have  well  resisted 
the  ravages  of  time  and  the  elements.  In  the  streets  of 
Cuzco  some  well-preserved  examples  of  Inca  walls  form  part 
of  modern  buildings,  a  good  example  being  the  wall  which 
was  the  base  of  the  Palace  of  Huayna  Capac,  one  of  the 
later  Inca  emperors.  Here  massive  stones  are  encountered, 
polygonal  in  form,  fitting  perfectly  into  each  other  ;  one  of 
them  is  twelve-sided.  This  wall  forms  part  of  an  Inca  street, 
which  is  used  to-day.  In  the  city  of  Cuzco  there  are  other 
buildings,  notably  the  remains  of  what  was  the  Temple  of 
the  Sun.  Overlooking  the  valley  are  the  singular  steps  or 
terraces,  cut  out  of  the  living  rock,  which  is  termed  "  the 
seat  of  the  Inca,"  and  it  is  stated  that  the  Inca  emperor  took 
his  seat  here  to  watch  the  construction  of  the  great  fortress. 
Upon  the  slope  of  the  Yucay  valley,  which  is  one  of  those  which 
drain  into  the  affluents  of  the  Amazon,  the  ruins  of  another 
remarkable  fortress  are  encountered,  that  of  Ollantaytambo  : 
which  also  consists  in  great  terraces  of  Cyclopean  masonry. 
There  are  to  be  observed  in  this  structure — a  common 
feature  of  Inca  architecture — the  series  of  niches  in  the  walls, 
with  their  characteristic  trapezoidal  form,  giving  a  unique 
effect.  No  style  of  building  could  accord  so  well  with  its 
environment  as  the  massive  structures  of  the  Incas.  Possibly 
the  builders  were  influenced  by  the  great  mountains 
which  overhang  their  valleys,  and  strove  to  adapt  their 
work  to  the  stupendous  Andean  architecture  on  every 
hand. 

Another  remarkable  group  of  ruins  in  the  same  region 
is  that  of  Intihuatana  and  Pisac.  The  latter  is  an 
imposing  fortress  upon  the  summit  of  the  mountains,  a 
remarkable  situation  with  an  extensive  view  of  the  sur- 
rounding cafions.  The  fortress  of  Pisac  had  its  own 
sacred  purpose.  It  enclosed — and  still  encloses — the  temple 
wherein  stands  the  famous  astronomical  stone  or  pillar  of 
Intihuatana.  This  word  means  in  the  Quechua  tongue 
"  the  seat  or  throne  of  the  sun."  The  pillar  was,  in  fact,  the 
instrument  by  which  the  Inca  astronomer-priests  determined 
the  solstices.     The  column,  now  broken,  is  worked  out  of  the 


:igaigg 


Vnderxvood  &  Underwood 
Inca  Wall  at  Cuzco,  and  Quechua  Indian- 


THE   INCAS  OF  PERU  247 

solid  rock.  It  is  enclosed  by  a  circular  tower,  and  in  this 
the  priests  observed  the  shadow  of  the  column  upon  an  east 
and  west  hne  inscribed  upon  a  circle  which  surrounded  it. 
When  the  day  approached  feasts  were  celebrated,  and 
a  golden  stool  was  placed  upon  the  shaft,  so  that  "  Inti," 
the  sun,  might  rest  upon  it,  it  is  stated.  There  were  others 
of  these  astronomical  pillars  throughout  Peru  and  Ecuador, 
but  they  were  generally  destroyed  by  the  Spanish  priests  after 
the  conquest.  The  fortress  and  buildings  surrounding  the 
column-chamber  are  well  executed — stone-built  corridors, 
halls,  and  chambers  ;  whilst  the  whole  place,  surrounded  by 
beetling  precipices  and  protected  by  revetments  of  granite 
masonry,  is  impregnable.  These  great  fortresses  com- 
manded the  valleys  leading  down  to  the  region  of  the 
Amazonian  forests  below,  and  were  doubtless  to  protect  the 
empire  from  the  incursions  of  the  savage  tribes  dwelling 
there. 

Tiahuanaco  lies  near  the  southern  end  of  lake  Titicaca, 
and  contains  the  ruins  of  the  oldest  city  in  the  New  World, 
upon  this  high,  sterile  plateau  more  than  two  miles  vertically 
above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  ruins  of  Tiahuanaco  consist 
mainly  in  the  outline  of  a  great  temple,  shown  by  rows  of  up- 
right monoUths,  foundations,  parts  of  stairways,  a  great  stone 
doorway,  and  some  colossal  stone  figures.  It  has  been  a  ques- 
tion how  these  great  monoliths  were  transported  here,  but 
taking  into  account  the  hydrographic  conditions  of  the  site, 
which  might  have  been  formerly  an  island  when  lake  Titicaca 
was  more  extensive  than  even  now,  it  is  conceivable  that 
they  were  floated  to  the  spot,  from  the  trachyte  and  basalt 
deposits — which  materials  were  used  in  part — 40  miles 
away.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  some  of  these  monoliths, 
both  here  and  at  Cuzco,  have  been  transported  for  great  dis- 
tances over  the  most  broken  country  imaginable,  and  their 
carriage  presents  the  same  question  as  has  been  aroused  con- 
cerning the  monoliths  of  Egypt.  The  most  notable  object  is 
the  monolithic  doorway  of  Akapana,  with  its  carved  figures, 
the  central  one  of  which  has  been  taken  by  Peruvian  archaeo- 
logists to  represent  the  mystic  deity  Huirakocha,  Upon 
the  islands  of  lake  Titicaca  there  are  other  notable  ruins,  both 


248  CENTRAL   AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

Inca  and  pre-Inca.  From  this  island  it  was  that  Manco 
Capac,  the  first  Inca,  whose  "virgin  birth  as  a  redeemer  of 
man  "  is  part  of  the  Inca  mythology,  set  out  to  civilise  the 
savage  tribes  of  the  Andes.  There  are  ruined  temples  to  the 
sun  and  the  moon,  the  former  of  which  the  Inca  worshipped 
as  symbolical  of  a  greater  Deity.  There  was  much  that 
was  chaste  in  the  religion  of  the  Incas.  They  imagined  a 
Supreme  Being,  an  "  Unknown  God,"  who  pervaded  every- 
thing, but  who  could  have  no  visible  or  tangible  form  or 
likeness  ;  and  they  did  not  set  up  idols,  nor  were  human 
sacrifices  performed.  The  image  of  the  Creator  was  re- 
presented at  Cuzco  by  an  elliptical  plate  of  gold  set  on  the 
wall  of  the  temple. 

Some  700  miles — or  about  400  from  Cuzco  to  the  north — 
is  the  region  of  the  Upper  Maraiion  river,  where  other 
examples  of  the  Inca  and  pre-Inca  stone-shaping  are  en- 
countered. The  modern  capital  of  this  region  is  the  town 
of  Huaraz,  and  across  the  main  range  of  the  Cordillera  is  an 
old  Inca  pass  of  rock-hewn  steps  at  an  elevation  of  nearly 
15,000  feet,  which  gives  access  below  to  an  affluent  of  the 
Maraiion,  upon  which  is  situated  the  remarkable  castle  of 
Chavin.  This  castle  contains  some  singular  underground 
chambers  and  passages,  the  purpose  of  whose  construction 
it  is  difficult  to  understand.  The  walls  are  of  blocks  of  hewn 
stone,  and  carved  monoliths,  doubtless  of  pre-Inca  origin, 
exist.  One  of  these,  a  large  carved  stone,  was  transported 
over  the  Andes  and  down  to  Lima,  on  the  coast,  where  it 
stands  in  the  Exhibition  Park.  The  remote  region  of  the 
Upper  Marafion  is  dotted  with  the  ruined  dwelhngs  of  the 
former  occupiers  of  the  land,  sometimes  in  the  most  in- 
accessible positions,  upon  appalling  crags,  towards  which  the 
night-mists  from  the  Marafion  roll  up  in  fleecy  folds  like  a 
mysterious  pall,  and  from  them  ruined  castles  and  walls 
seem  to  start  suddenly  like  the  ghosts  of  the  dwellings  of 
a  vanished  race — which  indeed  they  are.  The  disposal  of 
these  numerous  ruins,  often  about  a  central  fortress  com- 
manding the  heads  of  valleys,  and  surrounded  by  the 
abandoned  "  andenes "  or  terraced  fields  of  these  people, 
show  that  the  inhabitants  lived  as  clans,  or  "  Gentiles,"  and 


THE   INCAS  OF   PERU  249 

their  ruined  dwellings  are  termed  by  the  Indians  of  the  Andes 
to-day  "  casas  de  los  Gentiles,"  or  "  houses  of  the  Gentiles." 
The  one-time  cultivated  terraces  are  a  striking  feature 
of  the   Andes. 

The  most  notable  group  of  ruins  in  this  region  is  that 
of  Huanuco  Viejo,  which  stands  upon  a  broad,  flat  plain 
upon  an  arm  of  the  Marahon,  at  an  elevation  of  about  12,000 
feet  above  sea  level,  and  consists  in  an  extensive  palace,  a 
fortress  or  temple  of  the  sun,  baths,  and  an  extensive  village 
of  streets,  with  a  series  of  round  and  square  dwellings, 
alternating,  in  long  rows.  The  chief  architectural  feature 
of  the  buildings  is  a  series  of  six  stone  doorways,  fine  ex- 
amples of  Inca  masonry,  and  the  castle  or  temple.  The 
doorways  and  niches  are  of  typical  Inca  tapering  or  trape- 
zoidal form,  with  quoins  and  lintels  of  well-fitted  stones  of 
more  or  less  irregular  form,  so  closely  fitting  that  a  knife-blade 
cannot  be  inserted  in  the  joints.  The  castle,  which  stands 
in  the  centre  of  what  was  a  huge  square,  around  which  the 
palace  or  palaces  are  disposed,  is  a  building  of  different 
character.  It  is  rectangular  in  form,  about  100  feet  wide  and 
170  feet  long,  very  solidly  constructed  of  cut  stone  blocks 
surmounted  by  a  moulded  cornice. 

The  principal  ruins  of  the  Incas,  pre-Incas,  and  other  semi- 
civilised  former  occupants  of  the  coast,  such  as  the  Chimus 
of  Chan  Chan,  are  mainly  of  buildings  constructed  of  adobe, 
and  have  remained — where  they  have  remained  at  all — due 
to  the  dry  climatic  conditions  as  before  mentioned.  The 
most  famous  of  these  ruins  formerly  was  that  of  Pachacamac, 
which  at  the  time  of  the  Conquest  was  a  fine  temple.  The 
name  "  Pachacamac  "  signifies  in  Quechua— the  language  of 
the  Andean  people — "  He  who  gives  animation  to  the 
Universe."  To-day  nothing  remains  of  this  great  temple 
but  a  mound  of  rubbish,  a  day's  ride  from  Lima.  Upon  the 
coast-zone  to  the  south  are  a  group  of  ruins  known  as 
"  Incahuasi  "  or  "  the  house  of  the  Inca."  These,  unlike  the 
coast  ruins  generally,  are  of  stone,  although  they  lack  the 
fine  workmanship  of  the  upland  structures.  But  they  are 
unique  in  that  they  contain  a  row  of  columns  ;  an  archi- 
tectural  feature   unknown  in  the  Inca  and  pre-Inca  ruins 


250  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 

elsewhere,  for,  except  in  this  case,  the  column  was  unfamiliar 
to  the  Andean  people,  as  was  the  arch. 

The  Inca  and  pre-Inca  architecture  differ  much.  The 
first  lack  any  iconographic  carvings,  such  as  are  seen  at 
Tiahuanaco  and  Chavin.  Monoliths  of  considerable  size 
were  common  to  both  ;  one  of  those  at  Cuzco  is  27  feet  long, 
15  feet  wide,  and  12  feet  long,  and  there  are  others  of  almost 
equal  size.  The  stones  vary  as  to  their  geological  composi- 
tion according  to  the  region  ;  some  are  of  granite,  as  at 
Cuzco,  some  of  trachyte,  sandstone,  or  basalt,  whilst  others 
are  of  a  hard,  siliceous  limestone.  It  is  to  be  recollected 
that  this  remarkable  stone-shaping  art  was  performed 
without  the  use  of  iron  ;  but  the  Incas  possessed  bronze, 
termed  chumpe,  and  copper  tools.  Indeed,  they  were  skilled 
metallurgists  in  copper,  gold,  and  silver.  In  general  terms 
the  principal  characteristic  of  the  Inca  architecture  is  its 
great  solidity.  It  would  seem  that  the  builders  had  desired 
to  bequeath  to  posterity  these  chapters  in  stone  of  their 
history  ;  and,  indeed,  it  is  safe  to  say  that  these  may  be 
expected  to  outlast  even  the  modern  structures  of  America. 

In  regarding  the  Inca  laws  and  social  system,  a  broad 
general  idea  of  their  character  may  be  obtained  by  remark- 
ing the  statement  of  the  Inca-Spanish  historian  Garcilaso  de 
la  Vega,*  who  stated  that  laws  so  beneficent  had  never  been 
known  under  any  monarch  in  any  part  of  the  world.  The 
most  important  laws  were  those  relating  to  the  land  and  the 
enjoyment  of  the  natural  and  national  resources,  the  payment 
of  taxes,  and  the  attitude  of  the  individual  and  the  govern- 
ment towards  the  community.  The  whole  territory  of  the 
empire,  which  throughout  the  Inca  dynasties  was  constantly 
added  to  by  the  subjugation  of  neighbouring  tribes,  was 
carefully  surveyed  and  measured.  It  was  then  divided  into 
three  parts,  one  for  the  Sun,  one  for  the  Inca,  and  one  for 
the  people.  The  revenues  or  values  of  the  first  were  for 
religious  purposes,  temple-building  and  maintenance  of  the 
priests.     The  second  division  provided  revenue  for  the  royal 

•  The  best  account  of  these  matters  is  found  in  the  Hakluyt  Society's 
translations  of  "The  Royal  Commentaries  of  the  Incas"  (Markham's 
translation).  See  also  the  Author's  book,  "The  Secret  of  the  Pacific" 
(London:  Unwin,  1912). 


THE   INCAS  OF  PERU  251 

household,  and  machinery  and  officers  of  government.  The 
third  and  most  important  was  the  land  assigned  to  the 
people.  Under  the  agrarian  law  the  lands  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  each  village  were  carefully  measured  with  cords  and 
marked  out  in  lots  called  tupus,  and  a  tupu  was  allotted  to 
each  inhabitant.  The  size  of  the  lot  was  that  upon  which 
a  certain  measure  of  maize — about  a  hundredweight — 
being  planted  would  provide  sustenance  for  one  married 
peasant  without  children.  Directly  children  were  born 
another  lot  was  added  for  each  boy  and  half  a  lot  for  each 
girl.  The  boy's  lot  was  made  over  to  him  when  he 
married,  and  every  man  was  obliged  to  marry  at  the  age  of 
twenty-five.  It  was  unlawful  for  the  father  to  retain  it. 
The  daughter's  lot,  however,  remained  with  the  father 
when  she  married,  for  it  was  not  regarded  as  a  dowry,  and 
was  not  necessary  to  the  well-being  of  her  family,  in  view 
of  the  fact  that  the  husband  would  have  received  his  lot 
from  the  state.  The  people  were  not  the  owners  of  these 
holdings.  The  allotments  were  made  or  re-made  at  the 
end  of  each  year.  It  was  a  species  of  lease  from  the  state, 
and  the  holder  could  neither  dispose  of  his  own  holding  nor 
acquire  that  of  others.  If  the  father  did  not  need  his 
daughter's  half  lot  it  reverted  to  the  state,  and  when  the 
father  died  his  land  also  reverted  to  the  state.  Land  could 
not  be  bought  and  sold.  It  was  not  a  merchantable 
commodity. 

It  might  be  objected  that  so  comparatively  short  a  tenure 
would  be  inimical  to  anything  in  the  nature  of  attachment 
to  the  soil,  but  in  practice  it  was  not  so,  as  there  was  generally 
nothing  to  prevent  the  same  holder  continuing  his  occupancy, 
and  the  yearly  tenancy  practically  constituted  for  him  a  life 
proprietorship.  To  this  condition  the  native  love  of  the  soil 
and  dislike  of  change,  which  marked  the  character  of  the 
people,  gave  added  strength.  In  the  cultivation  of  the  lands 
a  regular  order  was  employed.  The  lands  of  the  Sun  were 
first  tilled,  the  whole  population  taking  part  in  the  work. 
Next  were  cultivated  the  lands  belonging  to  those  who  were 
unable  to  till  their  own,  performed  under  what  was  known 
as  the  "  fraternal  law,"  which  obhged  the  inhabitants  of 


252  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 

every  village  to  assist  each  other ;  thus  the  holdings  of  the 
only  persons  who  were  permitted  to  be  classed  as  "  poor," 
such  as  widows,  orphans,  aged,  and  invalid,  were  ploughed, 
sown,  and  reaped  by  the  community.  Special  officers  were 
deputed  to  direct  this  work  in  each  village.  The  evening 
before  this  duty  was  to  be  performed  these  deputies  ascended 
into  towers  built  for  the  purpose,  and  blowing  through  a 
shell  or  trumpet,  summoned  the  people  and  allocated  the 
work.  The  holdings  of  men  who  were  serving  as  soldiers 
were,  like  those  of  widows  and  orphans,  also  cultivated  ;  and 
the  wives  of  soldiers  were  regarded  as  widows  during  their 
husbands'  absence.  The  children  of  soldiers  who  fell  in 
the  wars  were  taken  great  care  of  and  provided  for. 

After  the  neighbourly  duties  had  been  performed,  the 
inhabitants  worked  their  own  lands,  and  in  this  neighbours 
assisted  each  other  as  might  be  necessary.  Then  the  lands 
of  the  curacas,  or  village  chiefs,  were  tilled,  and  such  was  the 
spirit  of  neighbourly  law  enforced  that  these  were  the  last 
to  receive  attention.  No  favouritism,  corruption,  or  "  graft" 
of  any  nature  was  permitted.  As  an  example  of  this  law  it  is 
related  that  a  government  superintendent,  in  the  time  of 
one  of  the  later  Inca  emperors,  was  executed  because  he 
caused  the  land  belonging  to  one  of  the  curacas  to  be 
attended  to  before  that  of  a  poor  widow  who  ought  to  have 
had  precedence.  Gallows  were  set  up  on  the  curaca's 
holding,  and  the  unjust  official  hanged  therefrom.  The 
last  division  of  lands  to  be  cultivated,  following  on  the 
law  of  the  precedence  of  the  most  humble,  was  that  of  the 
king,  or  Inca.  As  in  the  case  of  the  lands  of  the  Sun  these 
were  tilled  by  the  people  in  common,  amid  scenes  of 
rejoicing.  In  the  same  way  that  land  monopoly  was  made 
illegal  and  impossible,  so  was  it  equally  prohibited  to 
monopolise  or  misuse  the  other  natural  resources  of  the 
country.  The  most  important  of  these  natural  resources 
were  water  for  irrigation,  guano  for  fertihsing,  and  gold, 
silver,  and  other  products  of  mines.  All  these  were  regarded 
as  national  or  state  property.  It  is  to  be  recollected  that 
the  conditions  under  which  agriculture  was  carried  on  in 
early  Peru  were  not  easy.     Peru  lies  in  the  torrid  zone,  and 


THE   INCAS   OF   PERU  253 

the  topography  and  climate  of  the  country  are  very  pecuHar. 
For  the  successful  cultivation  of  maize  and  cotton  irrigation 
is  necessary.  The  Incas  were  extremely  clever  in  the  art  of 
irrigation,  constructing  long  canals  along  the  slopes  of  the 
hills,  damming  up  lakes  and  constructing  hydraulic  works 
of  much  ingenuity.  Water  was  of  great  value,  as  without 
irrigation  the  maize  crop  would  fail.  The  pasture  lands, 
in  some  cases,  where  the  herds  of  llamas  thrived,  also  required 
irrigation  in  dry  seasons.  Neither  expense  nor  trouble  was 
spared  in  the  irrigation  works.  In  some  instances  channels 
of  many  miles  in  length  were  made  in  order  to  irrigate  very 
small  patches  of  maize-producing  ground.  Many  of  the 
old  channels  are  visible  to-day.  No  monopoly  of  water 
was  permitted,  nor  private  ownership.  The  quantity  was 
measured,  and  calculation  made  as  to  the  amount  required 
for  the  irrigation  of  the  soil  in  each  village.  Accordingly 
each  cultivator  was  allotted  a  time-flow  of  water  from  the 
irrigation  channel  sufficient  for  his  land.  No  preference 
was  given  ;  each  received  water  in  his  turn,  neither  the 
rich  nor  the  poor  receiving  any  preference. 

It  is  seen  that  the  system  of  farming  was  that  of  an 
intensive  cultivation  in  small  holdings.  But  it  was  not  a 
question,  in  the  mountainous  regions,  merely  of  subdividing 
the  land,  but  positively  of  making  the  land.  That  is  to  say, 
the  interior  of  the  country  is  so  broken  and  steep  that  it 
was  necessary  to  terrace  the  mountain  slopes  in  order  to 
contain  the  soil.  The  result  was  that  every  hill  offering  the 
barest  possibilities  of  soil  was  converted  into  terraced  fields, 
by  the  method  of  banking  up  on  the  lower  side  with  stone  walls 
and  excavating  on  the  upper,  and  filling  in  with  soil ;  the 
whole  presenting  the  appearance  of  huge  flights  of  steps. 
The  slopes  of  the  Andes  are  covered  with  these  abandoned 
terraces  or  "  andenes  "  in  many  districts,  where,  before 
the  Spanish  advent,  a  large  self-sustaining  population 
flourished.  In  such  districts  every  available  foot  of  ground 
has  been  used  ;  the  terraces  reaching  up  in  series  from  the 
stream  bed  into  the  very  clouds,  stopping  only  where  the 
rock-face  of  the  hill  became  vertical.  Many  of  the  terraced 
holdings  appear  almost  inaccessible,  except  to  condors  and 


254  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 

vicunas.  They  testify  to  the  remarkable  industry  and 
ingenuity  of  these  people,  and  it  is  a  melancholy  condition 
to  see  them  lying  abandoned.  Many  of  these  "  andenes  " 
are  still  used,  however,  and  the  inevitable  irrigation  ditch 
surmounts  them,  its  influence  marking  a  well-definecf  line 
of  vegetation  on  the  barren  mountain  slope. 

Next  in  order  to  the  system  of  land  tenure  and  agriculture 
may  be  considered  the  system  of  tax-payments,  A  funda- 
mental law  concerning  this  was  that  taxes  were  paid  in 
labour  and  produce,  and  not  in  money  :  and  paid  in  such 
produce  as  the  particular  region  in  which  the  taxpayer  lived 
afforded.  Tribute,  moreover,  was  only  taken  in  respect 
of  the  capabilities  of  the  land.  The  first  and  principal  tribute 
was  in  the  form  of  labour  in  cultivating  and  harvesting 
the  lands  of  the  Inca  and  the  Sun.  The  proceeds  from  this 
labour  were  stored  in  great  storehouses  in  each  village. 
Great  granaries  were  built  and  the  grain  stored  therein, 
and  after  the  wants  of  the  Inca  and  the  priests  had  been 
supplied  these  were  held  as  surplus  stores  against  times 
of  famine,  and  for  maintaining  the  large  armies  that  were 
constantly  kept  in  the  field,  and  for  other  state  purposes,  as 
well  as  for  furnishing  the  poor  with  seed  and  food  when 
necessary.  This  was  equivalent  to  a  system  of  national 
grain  reserves  against  war  or  famine.  Taxes  were  also 
paid  in  the  form  of  manufactured  products  :  shoes,  arms, 
clothes  for  soldiers  ;  and  in  food  products,  all  of  which 
were  stored  in  the  warehouses  or  national  and  royal  depots, 
which  existed  in  every  valley.  It  was  held  as  a  great 
economic  error  to  exact  from  any  inhabitant  anything  in 
the  form  of  taxes  which  he  could  not  personally  produce. 
A  man  with  a  large  family  was  considered  wealthy, 
because  its  labour,  in  a  few  hours,  provided  the  necessary 
tax  ;  whilst  the  added  allotments  and  extra  labour  to  work 
them  insured  a  large  return  for  the  family. 

The  work  of  administration  of  all  these  laws,  and  inspec- 
tion of  the  people  and  enforcement  of  their  obUgations, 
called  for  a  great  army  of  higher  and  petty  officials  and 
inspectors  ;  in  effect  a  benevolent  bureaucracy,  which 
was  supported  by  the  state.     Minute  accounts  of  everything 


THE   INCAS  OF  PERU  255 

were  kept,  whether  of  the  amount  of  land  and  inhabi- 
tants, births  and  deaths  and  other  vital  statistics,  whether 
of  the  quantities  and  kinds  of  goods  delivered  into  the 
national  and  royal  storehouses.  Everything  was  over- 
looked and  supervised.  The  houses  of  the  people  were 
regularly  inspected  to  see  that  the  man  and  his  wife  per- 
formed their  duties,  that  discipline  was  maintained  among 
the  children,  and  that  household  utensils  and  clothing  were 
kept  clean  and  in  order.  The  people  were  even  obliged  to 
dine  and  sup  with  open  doors,  in  order  that  they  might  be 
inspected  with  facility.  All  were  obliged  to  marry,  or  give 
sufficient  reasons  therefor  ;  and  in  journeying  to  wear  the 
distinctive  dress  of  their  district.  Other  laws  provided 
that  strangers  and  travellers  should  be  treated  as  guests, 
and  special  houses  or  fambos  were  provided  for  this  purpose. 
It  was  also  provided  that  the  poor  should  regularly  be 
invited  to  public  banquets,  so  that  they  might  forget  their 
condition  ;  and  all  neighbours  were  commanded  to  feast 
together  once  a  month  to  promote  neighbourly  intercourse. 
As  regards  the  manufacturing  industries,  if  such  they  may 
be  termed,  these  were  not  carried  out  in  factories,  for  every 
boy  was  taught  the  rudiments  of  handicrafts,  and  every 
inhabitant  was  able  to  supply  his  own  wants.  Clothes, 
shoes,  arms,  and  everything  else  were  made  at  home.  Each 
man,  assisted  by  his  wife,  was  tailor,  shoe-maker,  weaver. 
The  wool  of  the  llamas  was  wrought  into  homespun,  and 
even  to-day  the  people  of  the  Andean  uplands  make  the 
most  excellent  tweeds  and  homespuns,  in  check  and  stripe 
patterns,  as  well  as  blankets,  ponchos,  and  other  woven 
fabrics.  Some  of  these  are  of  extreme  elegance  and  utility. 
The  colours  they  used  for  dyeing  are  of  much  beauty. 
These  cottage  industries  are  being  ousted  to  some  extent  by 
the  work  of  the  commercial  traveller  from  Europe,  and 
cheap  German  dyes  and  machine-made  Lancashire  cotton 
goods  and  woollens  are  replacing  the  excellent  cottage 
handiwork  of  the  people.  But  the  inhabitant  of  these 
uplands  holds  fast  to  the  customs  of  his  forbears,  and 
refuses  to  be  herded  together,  or  to  abandon  his  free, 
out   of  door   life,    and   small  holding.     The  natives  were 


256  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH  AMERICA 

and  still  are  hard-working  and  patient,  and  evince  con- 
siderable dexterity  in  their  crafts. 

Mining  was  carried  on  for  the  recovery  of  gold,  silver,  and 
copper,  but  the  noble  metals  were  not  used  commercially  or 
as  currency.  They  were  employed  in  the  decoration  of 
temples,  whose  interiors  were  covered  with  plates  of  gold, 
and  for  the  manufacture  of  vessels  for  the  princes  and 
nobility  to  drink  from.  Copper  was  used  for  tools,  as  the 
use  of  iron  was  unknown  ;  and  it  was  more  highly  valued 
than  gold  and  silver.  Mining  labour  was  performed  by 
special  artisans,  who  were  supplied  with  food,  clothing, 
house  and  tools  by  the  state,  and  they  were  exempted  from 
tax-paying.  They  worked  only  for  two  months  of  the  year 
in  the  mines,  being  free  then  to  attend  to  their  farms.  The 
custom  still  remains  to  some  extent,  and  the  miner  of  the 
Peruvian  and  Bolivian  highlands  often  prefers  to  throw  down 
his  tools  at  sowing  and  harvesting  time  and  repair  to  his 
holding. 

At  first  glance  it  might  seem  that  the  early  Peruvians  lived 
under  what  might  appear  to  be  almost  an  ideal  social 
system.  All  their  wants  were  supplied  ;  there  was  no  such 
thing  as  poverty,  destitution,  or  unemployment ;  every  man 
and  woman  was  possessed  of  a  piece  of  land,  a  house,  and 
the  conditions  and  material  for  their  maintenance.  The 
land,  the  means  of  production  and  distribution,  and  the 
natural  resources  of  the  country,  were  all  nationalised,  or 
what  was  in  a  sense  equivalent  to  nationalisation.  No  one 
class  was  permitted  to  despoil  another  ;  the  strife  between 
capital  and  labour  did  not  exist,  and  the  people  were  made 
honest  and  neighbourly  by  law.  But  the  most  serious 
defect  that  has  been  alleged  against  the  Inca  regimen  is 
that  individualism  was  stifled  :  that  a  dead  level  was  main- 
tained, and  that  progress  was  impossible.  There  is  little 
incentive  for  progress  when  men  and  women  are  "  labelled  " 
and  have  no  room  for  the  exercise  of  free  will  in  the  matters 
of  their  daily  hfe.  It  has  been  urged  that  this  condition 
of  "  Socialism  "  was  responsible  for  the  easy  downfall  of 
the  Inca  empire  upon  the  attack  of  the  Spaniards.  A 
people  bhndly  obedient  to  an  autocracy,  however  benevolent. 


THE   INCAS   OF   PERU  257 

had  lost,  or  never  possessed,  the  power  of  initiative,  nor 
energy  to  resist  when  attacked  from  the  outside.  On  the 
contrary,  it  may  be  urged  that  they  were  good  fighters  and 
"  imperialists  "  in  their  way,  and  that  the  horses  and  guns  of 
the  Spaniards  gave  these  an  undue  advantage.  Furthermore, 
the  empire  was  in  a  state  of  civil  war  at  the  time  of  the  con- 
quest. Whether  intellect  and  science  would  have  advanced 
under  the  benevolent  autocracy  of  the  Incas,  had  they  been 
undisturbed,  it  is  impossible  to  say ;  but  it  is  .doubtful  if 
"  individualism  "  in  some  form  would  not  have  appeared. 
The  advent  of  the  European  opened  the  door  to  individualism, 
science,  and  Christianity,  however  rudely.  So  far  in  South 
America  the  results,  as  regards  the  labouring  classes,  are 
slow  ;  the  poor  inhabitants  who  once  lived  in  peace  and 
plenty  under  their  old  rulers  now  dwell  in  comparative 
misery,  more  or  less  exploited  by  the  "  capitalistic " 
system.  They  were  abused  and  destroyed  by  the  Spaniards, 
and  to-day  are  both  neglected  and  exploited.  Modern 
methods  have  not  yet  benefited  them.  It  is  true  that 
the  repubUcan  governments  of  modern  Peru  and  Bolivia 
seek  to  advance  the  status  of  the  people  of  the  uplands, 
although  they  can  scarcely  reach  the  lowlands  of  the  Amazon : 
but  their  purpose  and  influence  are  feeble,  and  rendered 
at  times  almost  fruitless  by  political  strife,  administrative 
corruption  and  defective  organisation.  The  result  of  the 
work  of  the  modems  in  Peru,  Bolivia,  and  Ecuador  has 
been  that  a  people  who  numbered  perhaps  ten  or  fifteen 
millions  four  centuries  ago,  and  lived  in  sufticiency  for 
unknown  periods  of  time,  now  number  little  more  than 
four  millions,  a  great  part  of  whom  dwell  in  poverty  and 
ignorance,  regarding  themselves  as  a  conquered  race,  and 
almost  without  hope  for  the  future.  At  the  close  of  day 
the  Indian  ascends  to  some  lonely  hill  in  the  vicinity  of 
his  habitation,  with  his  flute  or  pan-pipes,  and  there  makes 
mournful  wail  of  protest  upon  his  fallen  state — notes  which 
fall  solemnly  on  the  ear  of  the  traveller  in  those  remote 
wilds  of  the  Andes. 


R 
f 


258  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 


CHAPTER    Vni 
THE    REPUBLICS   OF    THE   ANDES— ECUADOR 

The  republic  of  Ecuador  is  the  smallest  by  far  of  the 
sisterhood  of  the  Andean  countries,  but  it  shares  with  them 
the  striking  topographical  features  which  distinguish  the 
Pacific  states  of  South  America.  The  series  of  colossal 
snow-crowned  volcanoes  of  this  part  of  the  continent, 
which  overlook  the  equator-city  and  plateau  of  Quito, 
form  the  culminating  orographical  features  of  the  Cordillera  : 
the  imposing  mountain  edifices  which,  built  up  of  subter- 
ranean fires,  have  been  sculptured  by  the  perpetual  snows 
which  lie  upon  the  Andes  of  the  equator.  Ecuador  is  a 
land  of  great  contrasts.  Above  the  profoundest  gorges  arise 
the  loftiest  summits  :  snowfields  stretch  gleaming  above 
tropical  forests,  perpetual  spring  and  perpetual  winter  lie 
one  beneath  the  other,  and  bleak  steppes  alternate  with 
smiling  valleys. 

The  territorial  conditions  of  Ecuador  are  to  a  certain 
extent  similar  to  those  of  Peru  ;  comprising  the  Pacific 
littoral,  the  mountain  and  highlands  zone,  and  the  Amazon 
forest  region.  Due  to  a  difference  of  climate,  however, 
the  coast  zone  is  not  arid  and  waterless,  as  in  Peru  and 
Chile,  but  is  covered  with  dense  vegetation.  The  portion 
of  Ecuador  extending  into  the  Amazon  valley  does  not 
reach  the  Brazihan  frontier  ;  the  northern  extension  of 
Peru  intervening.  The  cis-Andean  or  littoral  zone  has  a 
frontage  upon  the  Pacific  coast  of  about  400  miles,  its 
principal  topographical  feature  being  the  gulf  of  Guayaquil 
and  the  short  navigable  Guayas  river  leading  to  the  port  of 
Guayaquil.  The  climate  of  the  coast  lowlands  is  hot  and 
moist ;  and  mangrove  swamps  line  the  shores  of  the  Guayas 


THE   REPUBLICS   OF   THE   ANDES— ECUADOR  259 

river.  The  gulf  of  Guayaquil,  the  only  indentation  of  much 
importance  in  the  western  coast  of  South  America,  marks 
the  line  between  the  arid  Peruvian  littoral  and  the  forested 
belt  of  the  equatorial  region.  In  the  Spanish  topographical 
nomenclature  elsewhere  described,  the  zones  of  varying 
altitude  are  known  as  the  hot  lands,  the  temperate  lands, 
the  cold  lands,  and  the  snowy  lands  ;  and  the  climatic 
conditions  depending  upon  altitude  are  very  strikingly 
marked  in  Ecuador,  as  much  so  as  in  Peru,  and  although 
the  country  lies  upon  the  equator,  from  which  it  takes  its 
name,  the  principal  centres  of  civilisation  and  population 
are  in  the  so-called  cold  lands  of  the  inter- Andean  region, 
which  include  the  fertile  plateau  upon  which  Quito,  the 
capital,  is  situated,  nearly  i|  miles  above  sea  level.  The 
tropical  valleys  and  rivers  of  the  Amazon  watershed  beyond 
are  possessions  of  much  value  to  the  republic. 

The  republic  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Colombia,  and 
on  the  south  and  east  by  Peru.  Some  of  these  boundaries 
are  in  dispute,  and  the  area  of  the  country,  estimated  at 
116,000  square  miles,  is  only  approximate.  Ecuador  forms 
the  westernmost  part  of  South  America  ;  which  continent, 
lying  as  it  does  almost  entirely  to  the  east  of  North  America, 
brings  Quito  almost  on  the  same  meridian  as  Washington. 
The  important  island  group  of  the  Galapagos,  lying  600 
miles  off  the  coast,  upon  the  equator,  forms  part  of  the 
national  territory.  North  of  the  gulf  of  Guayaquil  the  coast 
is  of  cliff-like  formation,  part  of  the  great  fracture-zone 
of  the  continent ;  and  the  great  depths  off  the  coast,  and  the 
vast  heights  of  the  Andes  above,  combine  to  form  a  great 
total  difference  of  elevation  :  with  tectonic  earthquake- 
producing  activity  attendant.  The  strong  contrast  pre- 
sented with  the  Peruvian  and  northern  Chilean  coast,  in  the 
matters  of  chmate  and  vegetation,  is  due  to  the  absence  of 
the  great  Penivian  current,  which  is  deflected  outwards 
into  the  Pacific  by  the  bulging  northern  coast  of  Peru, 
and  so  no  longer  influences  the  littoral.  Due  to  this  circum- 
stance a  total  change  in  the  character  of  the  coast  is  observed. 
The  sandy  deserts  of  the  Peruvian  seaboard  give  place  in 
Ecuador  to  forests  coming  down  to  the  water's  edge,  bathed 


26o  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

in  moisture  and  warmth,  and  extending  upwards  upon  the 
slope  of  the  countrj^  to  an  elevation  of  4,000  feet  ;  primeval 
forests  with  trees  of  colossal  size,  and  upon  these  wooded 
mountains  at  mid-day  during  certain  seasons  a  veil  of  dark 
mist-clouds  hangs.  The  climatic  influences  on  the  coast, 
however,  are  not  rigid,  but  are  varied  by  local  conditions,  and 
north  of  the  gulf  there  are  some  arid  desert  areas. 

The  Guayas  river  at  its  mouth  is  nearly  two  miles  wide, 
and  the  shores  and  islands  are  green  with  vegetation. 
Floating  islands  of  matted  trunks  and  palms  float  down- 
wards on  the  turgid  current,  and  upon  these  at  times 
voyaging  alligators  are  observed.  Balsas,  or  rafts,  canoes, 
and  steamers  ascend  and  descend  the  river,  and  the  balsas 
return  upon  the  flood  tide,  having  discharged  their  merchan- 
dise. The  river  narrows  considerably  between  Guayaquil 
and  the  mouth,  and  the  ocean  steamer  almost  brushes  the 
vegetation  on  the  banks,  and  temporary  stranding  on  the 
soft  mud  shoals  not  infrequently  occurs. 

Above  the  tropical  coast  lands  and  lowlands  the  country 
slopes  upwards  rapidly,  ascending  to  the  high  uplands,  or 
paramos.  The  inter-Andean  plateau,  the  region  of  the  great 
uplands,  lies  between  the  two  great  chains  of  mountains 
which  cross  the  country  from  north  to  south  :  known  as  the 
Eastern  and  Western  Cordilleras  respectively.  The  three 
principal  plains,or  shallow  basins, are  those  of  Quito,  Ambato, 
and  Cuenca  ;  the  first  having  an  average  elevation  of  9,500 
feet,  the  second  of  8,500  feet,  and  the  tliird  of  7,800  feet.  The 
Quito  plain  is  fertile,  as  described,  and  covered  with  vegeta- 
tion, and  the  others  barren  ;  partly  due  to  the  volcanic 
character  of  the  region.  Rising  from  the  plateaux  along 
the  eastern  and  western  margins  are  the  main  Cordillera 
summits,  culminating  far  above  the  perpetual  snow-line, 
which  is  found  in  Ecuador  at  about  15,750  feet  above 
sea  level.  Nowhere  among  the  mountains  of  the  whole 
world  does  there  exist  so  remarkable  an  assemblage  of  snow- 
covered  peaks  as  those  which  exist  around  the  Ecuadorian 
tableland.  Not  only  for  their  height  are  these  remarkable, 
but  for  their  striking  symmetrical  disposition  in  two  rows, 
sometimes   in    pairs   facing  each   other  across  the  valley. 


.^•■fl 


Photo 


Quito,  on  the  Equator 


Underwood  &  Underwood 


THE   REPUBLICS   OF  THE  ANDES— ECUADOR  261 

Around  these  central  plains;  almost  within  sight  of  each 
other,  are  grouped  twenty-two  such  peaks,  several  of  which 
are  active  volcanoes  ;  the  western  chain  containing  the 
highest  summits,  the  eastern  the  greatest  number.  Among 
the  principal  of  these  mountain  peaks  are  Chimborazo, 
20,498  feet  elevation,  Cotopaxi  19,613  feet,  Antisana  19,335 
feet,  Cayambe  19,186  feet,  with  three  others  over  17,000, 
four  over  16,000  feet,  and  four  over  15,000  feet.  It  is  stated 
that  some  of  these  peaks  and  towns,  and  places  in  their 
neighbourhood  have  sunk,  and  others  risen,  since  the  time 
of  their  first  measurement. 

The  volcano  Imbabura,  notorious  for  its  destructive  erup- 
tions of  mud  and  water,  stands  between  the  two  ranges 
towards  the  north  of  the  plateau,  reaching  15,033  feet ;  and 
its  name  was  due  to  a  now  discredited  native  story  that 
quantities  of  fish  were  discharged  from  the  crater  with  the 
mud.  Cotopaxi,  the  unrivalled,  is  the  highest  active 
volcano  in  the  world,  and  smoke  issues  unceasingly  from 
its  summit.  Another  peak,  Llanganati,  bears  the  tradition 
that  the  treasures  of  the  Incas  were  buried  in  a  lake  on  its 
slopes.  Tunguragua  has  a  cone-shaped  summit  like  that  of 
Cotopaxi,  and,  rising  direct  from  the  lower  elevation,  is  of 
the  most  imposing  character.  A  cataract  fed  by  the  melting 
snows  from  its  snow  cap  descends  1,500  feet  in  three  leaps  ; 
and  at  its  base  lies  a  fertile  cultivated  valley,  that  of  Bafios, 
with  thermal  springs.  Among  the  most  impressive  of  these 
mountains  is  El  Altar,  or  Capac  Urcu,  meaning  "  King 
mountain,"  with  a  summit  formed  of  eight  snow-clad  peaks 
which  tradition  states  were  once  higher  than  Chimborazo, 
but  which  sank  under  an  eruption  long  ago.  Sangay,  another 
of  the  volcanoes,  has  been  but  little  visited.  It  sends  forth 
small  outbursts  of  lava,  throwing  molten  rock  2,000  feet 
above  its  summit,  and  the  ashes  are  carried  by  the  wind 
into  the  streets  of  Guayaquil,  far  away.  On  the  western 
Cordillera  is  the  magnificent  Chimborazo,  the  name  meaning 
"  the  mountain  of  snow,"  lying  seventy-six  miles  north 
of  Guayaquil,  and  forest-covered  on  the  Pacific  side  to  the 
snow-line,  above  which  it  rises  for  5,000  feet.  Mists  and 
clouds  cover  the  cone  of  Chimborazo,  which  is  rarely  seen. 


262  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH  AMERICA 

Carahuairazo,  or  "  Chimborazo's  wife,"  so  called  by  the 
natives,  lies  immediately  north  of  her  mighty  consort, 
but  at  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century,  during  a  great 
earthquake,  her  hollow  cone  collapsed,  and  left  a  jagged 
rim,  weird  and  picturesque.  Pichincha  is  the  "  boiling 
mountain,"  so  named  for  its  destructive  eruptions  which 
menace  Quito,  one  of  which  in  past  centuries  covered  the 
city  three  feet  deep  with  stones  and  ashes. 

The  hydrographic  and  river  systems  of  Ecuador  are  those 
of  the  Pacific  and  Amazon  watersheds.  Of  the  former  the 
Guayas  river  is  the  principal ;  but  a  considerable  number 
of  smaller  streams  flow  westward  through  the  Cordillera 
to  the  Pacific,  some  navigable  and  of  considerable  import- 
ance ;  among  them  the  Mira  and  the  Esmeraldas.  The 
largest  eastward-flowing  river  is  the  Napo,  which  rises 
near  Cotopaxi.  At  the  village  of  Napo  it  is  1,450  feet 
above  sea  level ;  at  the  confluence  with  the  Aguarico  586 
feet,  and  at  its  junction  with  the  Maranon  385  feet,  and  nearly 
a  mile  wide.  A  large  part  of  the  region  through  which 
the  river  flows  is  claimed  and  occupied  by  Peru.  The  Napo 
is  navigable  for  steamboats  up  to  the  mouth  of  the  Coca 
river  above  the  Aguarico,  and  in  canoes  up  to  the  Cando 
cataract,  3,330  feet  above  sea  level.  Its  total  length  is 
920  miles.  The  Napo  runs  parallel  with  the  now  notorious 
Putumayo,  whose  possession  is  claimed  both  by  Peru  and 
Colombia.  The  Napo  and  its  tributaries  are  famous  as  hav- 
ing formed  the  route  by  which  Gonzalo  and  Orellana  reached 
the  Amazon  in  early  Spanish  times,  the  first  white  men  to 
traverse  those  vast  and  difficult  regions. 

The  remaining  affluents  of  the  Amazon  flowing  through 
this  territory,  of  any  importance,  are  the  Tigre,  Pastaza, 
Morona,  and  Santiago.  The  Tigre  is  416  miles  long,  and 
navigable  up  to  the  Cunambo  confluence  ;  and  it  promises 
to  become  one  of  the  best  river  routes  of  the  region.  The 
Pastaza  is  navigable  for  steamers  of  two  to  four  feet  draught 
for  124  miles  at  high  water  period,  and  for  canoes  for  200 
miles  beyond.  It  is,  however,  subject  to  furious  floods.  The 
Morona  is  navigable  for  more  than  300  miles  by  small 
steamboats.     Little  is  known  of  the  affluents  of  these  rivers. 


THE  REPUBLICS  OF  THE  ANDES— ECUADOR  263 

but  the  navigability  of  the  main  streams  is  a  condition 
of  extreme  economic  value  to  the  region  they  traverse,  and 
provides  an  aggregate  of  navigable  waterway  of  1,500  miles. 
The  Marafion,  into  which  these  rivers  fall,  is  described  in  the 
chapter  on  the  Amazon  valley. 

The  Ecuadorian  people  are  of  the  general  Andean  consti- 
tuents, of  white,  more  or  less  of  pure  Spanish  descent, 
mestizos,  and  Indians  ;  and  the  total  population  is  esti- 
mated at  1,500,000  to  2,000,000,  but  no  census  of  a  reliable 
nature  has  ever  been  taken.  As  in  Chile  especially,  the 
whites  form  an  exclusive  governing  class,  who  to  a  large 
extent  monopolise  the  land  and  arrogate  to  themselves  all 
governmental  powers.  This  class  is  estimated  to  number 
about  120,000  or  150,000  ;  but  it  includes  a  certain  propor- 
tion of  mestizos.  The  mestizos  in  Ecuador  number  300,000 
to  500,000,  and  constitute  about  a  quarter  of  the  population. 
They  are,  as  a  class,backward,and  in  certain  districts  ignorant 
and  slothful ;  but  these  conditions  cannot  altogether  be 
ascribed  as  their  fault.  The  system  of  land  monopoly  by  the 
ruling  class  and  the  pride  of  European  caste  which  these 
exhibit  keep  the  people  of  mixed  race  under,  and  they  have 
few  opportunities  of  improving  their  condition,  and  the 
constant  political  turmoil  tends  to  arbitrary  methods.  In 
the  more  remote  districts  the  mestizos  tend  to  revert  to 
the  Indian  type.  The  Indians  of  Ecuador  represent  about 
two-thirds  or  more  of  the  population,  and  are  in  the  main 
the  descendants  of  the  ancient  people  under  the  Caras  and 
the  Incas.  They  were  subjected  to  grave  abuses  under  the 
Spaniards,  thus  sharing  the  grievous  history  of  their  brethren 
of  Peru,  and  became  much  reduced  in  numbers  at  that 
period.  Furthermore,  the  system  of  peonage,  or  debt- 
bondage,  which  controlled  the  natives  under  the  colonial 
rule,  and  which  was  little  better  than  slavery,  practically 
exists  at  the  present  time,  as  regards  the  agricultural  classes. 
Regarding  their  intellectual  advance,  the  primary  schools 
of  Ecuador,  like  those  of  all  Latin  American  countries,  are 
free,  but  they  are  insufficient  for  the  population,  and 
education  by  the  poorer  classes  is  regarded  with  indiffer- 
ence ;   and  only  a  small  proportion  of  the  people  read  and 


264  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH  AMERICA 

write.  The  Indians  of  the  Ecuadorian  Oriente,  or  eastern 
region,  are,  hke  those  of  Peru,  largely  composed  of  tribes  of 
infieles,  or  infidels  ;  that  is,  people  who  are  under  neither 
civil  nor  religious  influence.  The  principal  Indian  tribes 
dwell  on  the  headwaters  of  the  Napo  and  other  rivers, 
in  some  cases  cultivate  the  soil,  and  have  developed  some 
primitive  manufactures ;  but  in  others  they  exist  in  a 
state  of  absolute  savagery.  These  tribes  are  distinct  from 
the  Christianised  Indians  of  the  uplands,  of  whom  the 
mestizo  race  has  been  formed,  as  in  the  case  of  Peru  and 
Bolivia. 

The  negro  element  in  Ecuador  is  principally  confined  to 
the  coast,  due  to  the  warm  moist  climate  in  part,  which  the 
black  race  prefers.  They  are  numbered  at  about  8,000, 
with  35,000  or  more  of  Zambos,  or  people  of  mixed  negro 
and  Indian  blood.  Of  Europeans  and  North  Americans  in 
Ecuador  there  are  but  few,  numbered  at  about  1,000.  A 
number  of  Chinese  have  settled  in  the  coast  lowland,  more 
or  less  insidiously,  as  their  entry  into  Ecuador  is  forbidden 
by  law.  They  are  engaged  in  shopkeeping  mainly,  but  they 
do  not  obtain  much  foothold  in  the  highlands.  In  certain 
places  there  is  a  strange  admixture  of  Chinese,  negroes, 
Spaniards  and  Indians. 

The  upper  class  Ecuadorians  present  characteristics 
similar  to  those  of  their  neighbours  of  Peru,  Bolivia  and 
Colombia,  to  a  large  extent,  except  that  they  endeavour  to 
preserve  certain  caste  or  colour  distinctions  to  a  greater 
degree.  They  are  a  people  of  excellent  ideals  and  theories, 
hospitable  and  courteous,  and  in  Quito  draw  certain  vigorous 
characteristics  from  their  bracing  mountain  environment  ; 
but  they  are  much  influenced  by  political  partisanship  and 
ruthless  in  their  methods  when  their  antagonisms  are 
aroused,  like  their  brethren  of  Peru.  The  progress  of  the 
republic  is  often  hampered  by  the  turbulent  political 
element;  and  the  series  of  political  murders  which  have 
marked  its  history  have  injured  the  country  severely  in 
foreign  estimation. 

Ecuador  is  divided  into  fifteen  provinces  and  a  territory, 
and   the   Galapagos   islands,   which   latter   are   under   the 


THE   REPUBLICS   OF   THE   ANDES— ECUADOR  265 

administration  of  a  jefe  territorial  appointed  by  the  executive. 
These  provinces  are  as  follows  : 


Province. 

Area. 
Square  miles. 

Population. 

Capital. 

Population 

Carachi 

1.495 

4,000 

Tulcan 

5,000 

Irababura 

2,416 

68,000 

Ibarra 

5.000 

Pichincha 

6,219 

205,000 

Quito 

80,000 

L6on 

2,595 

109,600 

Latacunga 

12,000 

Tunguragua  .. 

1,686 

103,000 

Ambato 

8.000 

Chimborazo  .. 

2,990 

122,000 

Riobamba 

12,000 

Bolivar 

1,260 

43,000 

Guaranda 

6,000 

Canar 

1. 519 

64,000 

Azogues 

4,000 

Azuay 

3.874 

132,400 

Guenca 

30.000 

Loja 

3.707 

66.000 

Loja 

10.000 

El  Oro 

2.340 

32,600 

Machala 

3,200 

Guayas 

8,216 

98,100 

Guayaquil 

60,000 

Los  Rios 

2,296 

32,800 

Babahoyo 

3,000 

Manabi 

7.893 

64,100 

Portoveijo 

5.000 

Esmeraldas    .. 

5.465 

14,600 

Esmeraldas 

6,000 

Oriente  Territo 

ry  unknown 

Galapagos  Is. 

2,865 

2,000 

The  government  is  a  centralised  republic,  whose  constitu- 
tion embodies  the  common  Latin  American  system  of  Ex- 
ecutive, Legislative,  and  Judicial  control.  The  executive 
consists  of  a  president,  vice-president  and  cabinet  of  five 
ministers  ;  the  legislative  of  the  congress  of  senators  and 
deputies  ;  and  the  judicial  of  a  supreme  court  and  five 
superior  courts.  Theory  and  practice  have  clashed  greatly 
in  Ecuador  in  the  country's  governance,  and  between  1830 
and  1909  the  constitution  was  changed  no  less  than  eleven 
times.  The  five  ministers  are  of  the  departments  of  for- 
eign relations  and  justice  :  interior,  and  public  works  : 
finance:  war:  pubhc  instruction,  posts  and  telegraphs.  The 
provinces  are  administered  by  governors,  the  departments 
by  jefe  polUicos,  and  the  muncipalities  by  ienientcs  poliiicos 
— political  chiefs  and  lieutenants  respectively,  all  appointed 
by  the  executive.  The  senate  contains  thirty-two  members, 
two  for  each  province,  one-half  being  renewed  each  two 
years ;  and  the  chamber  of  deputies  of  forty-two  members, 
one  to  each  30,000  inhabitants.  Suffrage  is  restricted  to 
literate  male  adults. 

Educational  conditions  are  backward  in  Ecuador.  Educa- 
tion is  compulsory  and  free  as  regards  primary  instruction, 


266  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 

but  a  considerable  part  of  the  population  is  unprovided  for. 
In  1900  there  were  1,300  primary  schools  and  80,000 
children  in  attendance  ;  37  secondary  schools  and  4,500 
pupils.  For  higher  education  there  are  the  technical  and 
professional  schools  and  the  three  universities  of  Quito, 
Guayaquil,  and  Cuenca,  and  six  schools  of  "  trades  and  pro- 
fessions," The  Quito  university  has  a  staff  of  thirty-two 
professors,  with  five  faculties  ;  and  there  is  in  the  capital  a 
school  of  agriculture,  observatory,  botanical  garden,  museum, 
military  school,  and  at  Guayaquil  a  naval  school. 

As  regards  rehgion  Ecuador  has  always  been  a  stronghold 
of  the  Romish  church,  and  the  constitution  of  1884  enacts 
that  all  other  creeds  are  excluded.  The  government  at 
times  has  been  practically  a  theocracy,  but  in  1904  reforms 
were  made  and  the  church  placed  under  state  control, 
which  forbade  the  foundation  of  religious  orders  and  changed 
other  matters  pertaining  thereto,  ensuring  greater  hberality. 

The  railway  from  Guayaquil  to  Quito  now  gives  access 
to  the  plateau-interior,  and  is  some  290  miles  in  length. 
It  was  built  by  American  engineers  with  British  capital. 
The  total  length  of  the  railway  lines  in  the  republic  is  scarcely 
more  than  800  miles  ;  and  the  roads,  with  the  exception  of 
one  of  two  highways  built  for  vehicles  on  the  coast,  are  only 
the  ordinary  difficult  mule-tracks  of  the  Andean  countries. 
The  general  appearance  of  Guayaquil  from  the  water  is  attrac- 
tive. The  harbour  is  a  good  one,  two  and  a  half  miles  in  length, 
with  extensive  quays,  and  the  town  is  a  busy  centre  with 
factories,  steam  saw-mills,  machine  shops,  and  breweries, 
evidences  of  modem  activity,  in  contrast  with  the  mediaeval 
Spanish  cathedral  and  plaza.  The  city,  which  contains 
80,000  inhabitants,  stretches  along  the  bank  of  the  river  for 
two  miles  towards  a  range  of  picturesque,  wooded  low  hills, 
and  the  numerous  craft  lying  before  it,  and  at  night  the  many 
Hghts,  give  the  seaport  a  pleasing  aspect  on  approaching 
it,  which  is  not  fully  borne  out  upon  entering.  The  streets 
are  regular  and  wide,  and  the  better  parts  of  the  town 
clean,  but  roughly  paved  and  noisy  :  and  in  the  poorer 
quarters  are  unpaved  ;  and  during  the  rainy  season  these 
streets  become  pools  of  stagnant   water  in    which  refuse 


THE   REPUBLICS   OF   THE   ANDES— ECUADOR  267 

from  the  houses  is  thrown,  forming  breeding-grounds  for 
mosquitoes,  yellow  fever,  and  malaria.  Thus  it  is  that 
the  seaport  of  Guayaquil  is  notorious  for  its  unsanitary 
conditions,  which  have  always  constituted  a  serious  menace 
to  ships  calling  there.  During  the  years  1909-1912  more 
than  1,000  persons  have  been  attacked  by  yellow  fever  in 
the  town,  and  twice  as  many  by  plague  :  whilst  smallpox 
and  other  epidemics  were  far  more  numerous.  Vessels 
frequently  neglect  the  port  in  their  itinerary  from  Panama 
to  Callao,  as  the  enforced  quarantine  after  leaving  the  place 
involves  loss  of  time.  The  prevalence  of  disease  is  due 
mainly  to  the  dirty  and  unsanitary  mode  of  hfe  of  the 
poorer  part  of  the  population,  their  squalid  vermin-infested 
habitations,  and  the  neglected  areas  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  town,  rather  than  to  any  irremediable  climatic 
conditions.  Following  upon  the  improvements  of  Panama, 
however,  the  sanitation  of  the  port  has  been  greatly  ex- 
tended, with  better  conditions.  Improvements  had  long 
been  projected  by  the  government  and  municipality,  but 
indolence,  lack  of  funds,  and  political  disturbances  prevented 
these  from  being  carried  out.  Apart  from  these  matters  the 
town  is  an  important  place;  its  best  streets  are  good,  and 
in  the  many  fine  shops  almost  any  article  can  be  purchased. 
There  is  a  modem  electric  tramway  system  in  the  town, 
and  electric  light,  driven  hydraulically  from  turbines;  and 
power  is  also  supplied  to  some  of  the  sugar  estates.  Guaya- 
quil is  the  principal  distributing  point  for  the  whole 
republic. 

The  average  daily  temperature  of  Guayaquil  is  76°  F.  ; 
the  highest  monthly,  in  February  and  March,  77°  throughout 
the  24  hours.  The  heaviest  rainfall  is  in  the  same  months, 
and  was  in  1911,  2,289  litres  per  square  metre.  There  is 
no  rain  generally  from  May  to  November. 

The  other  principal  port  of  Ecuador  is  Esmeraldas,  the 
name  being  derived  from  the  old  emerald  mines  in  the 
vicinity  ;  and  there  are  various  minor  ports. 

The  terminus  of  the  Guayaquil  and  Quito  railway  is  at 
Duran,  across  the  river,  reached  by  the  railway  steamers. 
The  Guayas  river  at  this  point  is  some  three-quarters  of  a 


268  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

mile  wide,  with  a  swift  current  and  a  tide  with  a  fall  of  12 
feet.     The  line  passes  through  lands  cultivated  with  sugar 
cane,  coffee,  cacao,  and  bananas,  and  some  rice,  for  which 
product  the  district  offers  great  possibihties,  and  Guayaquil 
might  become  the  most  important  rice-producing  centre  on 
the  Pacific  coast.     There  are  a  number  of  sugar  mills,  and 
the  country  in  the  vicinity  of  the  line,  before  entering  upon 
the  ascent  of  the  Andes,  wears  a  more  prosperous  appearance. 
The  railway  enters  the  Chan-Chan  valley,  which  is  threaded 
by  a  roaring  torrent,  crossed  and  re-crossed  by  the  line,  and 
the  heavy  gradients  and  sharp  curves  attest  the  difficulty 
of    its  construction  ;    landslides  and    washouts  have  fre- 
quently occurred.     As   the  line  ascends,  fine  healthy  sub- 
valleys  are  reached,  and  at  Huigra  are  the  headquarters  of 
the  railway  staff  and  a  hospital,  which  is  above  the  yellow 
fever  zone.     On  the  higher  reaches  beyond  the  land  is  of 
a  barren  aspect,  but  many  fertile  patches  are  cultivated, 
every  available  space  of  arable  land  being  tilled,  even  on 
hill  slopes  so  steep  that  such  would  seem  impossible.     The 
town  of  Riobamba  lies  at  9,000  feet  elevation  and  is  lighted 
electrically  from  a  mountain  stream,  and  beyond  a  full  view 
of  Chimborazo  opens,  when  clear  of  clouds,  with  its  immense 
double  peak  and  snow-clad  crest  outlined  against  the  blue 
of  the  upland  sky.     It  is  from  Riobamba  that  most  of  the 
revolutionary    element    of    Ecuador    has    proceeded.     The 
plateau  has  one  of  the  finest  climates  in  the  world,  on  the 
authority  of  Humboldt.     A  considerable  increase  in  grain- 
growing  in  this  region  has  resulted  upon  the  construction  of 
the  railway.     The  highest  point  on  the  line  is  at  the  summit 
of  the  Chimborazo  pass,  at  11,841  feet,  and  thence  descent  is 
made   to   Ambato.     In   this   vicinity   strawberries,    pears, 
apples,  and  peaches  are  produced,  and  grain,  corn,  potatoes, 
and  alfalfa  along  the  Latacunga  valley,  which  is  compara- 
tively level  and  about  ten  miles  wide  ;    cattle  and  horses 
abound,  and  the  rich  pastures  are  intersected  by  irrigation 
ditches.     Dairy  products,  good  cheese  and  butter,  are  made 
as  a  result  of  agriculture  in  this  high  valley.     Beyond,  the 
base  the  giant  cone  of  Cotopaxi  is  crossed  by  the  line,  and 
the  thin  smoke-wreath  of  the  volcano  hangs  in  the  atmosphere 


THE   REPUBLICS   OF   THE   ANDES— ECUADOR  269 

above ;  and  thence  the  fertile  valley  of  Machachi,  one 
of  the  most  attractive  in  the  republic,  is  descended.  The 
rows  of  volcanoes,  clothed  in  green  to  the  snow-line,  which 
guard  this  valley  are  of  extreme  beauty,  as  elsewhere 
described.  The  people  in  this  region  dwell  in  great  haciendas, 
and  the  relation  between  the  workers  and  the  owners  is  almost 
that  of  lord  and  serf  :  feudal  in  its  character,  as  is  the  general 
life  and  environment,  although  not  without  elements  of 
simplicity  and  rural  contentment.  There  is  much  of 
picturesqueness  and  colour  about  the  native  dress  and 
manners  in  the  uplands,  but  conditions  of  life  are  unsanitary. 
Visible  from  the  line,  but  at  a  much  lower  elevation,  is  the 
Chillo  valley,  with  cotton  and  woollen  mills,  actuated  by 
water-power  from  the  river,  and  supplying  a  large  pro- 
portion of  cheap  cloths  for  the  natives.  The  railway  then 
enters  the  valley  of  Quito. 

Quito  is  a  city  of  picturesque  character,  with  houses 
covered  with  red-tiled  roofs  and  built  in  the  quaint  style  of 
old  Spanish  colonial  or  Moorish  architecture  typical  of  the 
Andean  capitals.  The  streets  are  thronged  at  times  with 
the  Indian  element,  who  enter  the  city  on  feast  days  and 
market  days,  and  whose  bright-hued  and  vari-coloured 
ponchos  lend  animation  to  the  scene.  The  contrast  which 
this  element  presents  in  its  general  poverty  and  primitive- 
ness,  however,  with  the  dress  and  demeanour  of  the 
upper  class,  the  imported  frocks  and  Parisian  hats  of  the 
ladies  and  the  correct  black  coats  of  the  official  class,  is 
]^erhaps  more  marked  than  in  any  other  of  the  Andean  towns  : 
for  Quito  is  the  centre  of  a  well-populated  agricultural 
country,  and  at  the  same  time  is  the  centre  of  Ecuadorian 
government  and  society.  The  population  of  the  city  is 
about  80,000. 

The  city  is  traversed  by  two  deep  ravines,  one  of  which 
is  arched  over  with  a  stone  viaduct,  and  is  laid  out  in  rec- 
tangular squares  with  the  streets  oriented.  The  buildings 
are  generally  of  adobe,  with  the  better  class  houses  stuccoed. 
Upon  the  Plaza  Mayor,  or  principal  square,  occupying  the 
south  side,  is  the  cathedral,  with  the  archbishop's  palace 
on  the  northern  side,  and  the  finest  building  in  the  city  is 


270  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH  AMERICA 

the  Jesuits'  church  with  a  facade  covered  with  elaborate 
carving.  Thus  the  ecclesiastical  element  dominates,  archi- 
tecturally, as  it  long  did  in  other  ways.  On  the  other  sides 
are  the  government  or  national  Palacio,  or  state  building, 
with  a  long  handsome  row  of  columns,  and  the  municipal 
hall.  The  main  plaza  is  thus  the  centre  and  pulse  of  civil 
and  ecclesiastical  government,  a  method  common  in  civic 
economics  and  town  planning  in  the  older  Latin  American 
republics.  Among  other  notable  institutions  is  the  univer- 
sity, which  occupies  part  of  the  old  Jesuit  college,  and 
eleven  large  monastic  establishments,  six  of  which  are 
nunneries,  and  one,  the  convent  of  San  Francisco,  covers 
a  whole  rectangular  block,  and  is  among  the  largest  of  this 
kind  of  institution  in  the  world.  There  are  no  large  com- 
mercial houses  in  Quito,  and  the  export  trade  therefrom, 
consisting  mainly  in  hides  and  forest  products,  is  small. 
The  city  derives  its  name  from  the  Quitus  people,  the  orig- 
inal inhabitants  in  pre-Colombian  times,  who  were  associ- 
ated with  and  overcome  by  the  Incas.  A  number  of  inter- 
esting monuments  and  ruins  exist  in  various  parts  of  Ecuador, 
remnants  of  both  the  earlier  peoples.  The  temperature  of 
Quito  is  equable,  having  a  mean  of  58°,  and  a  diurnal  varia- 
tion of  10°,  with  an  annual  maximum  of  70°  and  minimum 
of  45°.  Pulmonary  affections  are  almost  unknown  at  the 
elevation  of  Quito,  which  is  9,345  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
Pacific.  The  city  has  frequently  suffered  from  earthquake 
shocks,  when  great  damage  has  been  done.  Quito  is  entitled 
to  the  gratitude  of  the  world  in  one  respect — it  was  in  its 
neighbourhood  that  the  potato  was  first  brought  to  the 
notice  of  the  Spaniards,  and  so  given  to  the  world,  the 
natives  having  developed  it  from  a  wild  variety. 

The  natives  of  the  Ecuadorian  highlands,  especially 
around  Quito,  show  the  same  talent  in  textile  arts  that 
characterises  the  Peruvians  and  Bolivians.  Hand-wrought 
laces  of  exquisite  workmanship  are  made,  especially  by  the 
women,  and  superior  hand-woven  carpets,  also  ponchos, 
woollen  and  cotton  cloths  and  carpets.  The  Quito  artisans 
are  skilled  in  wood  carving  and  gold  and  silver  work  ;  and 
with  other  matters  these  are  carried  out  as  cottage  Indus- 


THE   REPUBLICS   OF   THE  ANDES— ECUADOR  271 

tries.  The  so-called  Panama  hats  are  largely  a  production 
of  Ecuador,  Colombia,  and  the  north  of  Peru  ;  and  the 
native  power  of  weaving  in  fibre  in  these  countries  is  a 
veritable  fine  art.  In  Ecuador  the  work  is  a  valuable 
national  industry.  The  annual  value  of  the  export  of  straw 
hats  is  about  £260,000.  Of  manufacturing  industries  there 
are  none  beyond  those  of  primitive  or  local  importance, 
including  some  cotton  factories,  a  few  sugar  mills,  one  or 
two  with  modern  machinery,  and  various  distilleries. 

The  mineral  resources  and  industries  of  Ecuador  are  but 
little  developed,  and  cannot  compare  with  those  of  Peru  and 
Colombia,  Gold,  quicksilver  and  emeralds  are  found.  In 
the  gold  mines  a  good  deal  of  British  capital  has  been  ex- 
pended, but  without  commercial  results  ;  but  some  returns 
in  mining  have  been  secured  by  American  enterprise,  and 
shipments  of  gold  effected.  These  from  the  Zaruma  mines, 
in  1910,  were  of  a  value  of  £50,000.  Iron,  lead,  platinum, 
and  quicksilver  are  other  minerals  which  exist,  also  salt. 
There  are  some  deposits  of  good  coal  on  the  coast,  which  have 
not  yet  proved  successful  commercially  as  sources  of  fuel ; 
but  which  it  may  be  possible  to  develop  in  some  cases,  and 
petroleum  is  found  at  Santa  Elena,  and  a  small  refinery  has 
been  erected. 

The  various  coast  rivers  of  Ecuador  afford  some  200  miles 
of  navigation,  which  serve  the  plantations  and  small  mer- 
chants. Upon  these  lowlands  depend  almost  the  entire 
agricultural  industries  of  the  country  as  concerns  export. 
Among  these  industries  the  production  of  cacao,  or  chocolate, 
is  the  principal ;  and  at  the  end  of  the  last  century  Ecuador 
furnished  nearly  a  third  of  the  world's  supply  of  cocoa  beans  ; 
but  the  present  proportion  is  considerably  less.  This  valu- 
able product,  which  has  been  described  as  more  valuable 
than  gold  mining,  might  be  increased  considerably  in  Ecu- 
ador ;  but  absentee  landlordism  is  a  contributory  factor 
in  large  part  responsible  for  the  lack  of  development  and 
enterprise  in  agricultural  matters,  as  the  owners  of  the  cocoa 
and  certain  other  estates  are  content  with  the  yield  of  their 
monopolies  and  possessions,  and  spend  their  time  in  a  life 
of  leisure  in  Europe.     On  the  hot  lowlands  coffee  is  also 


272  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 

produced,  and  exported  for  consumption  in  Chile.  Cotton, 
sugar,  tobacco,  rice,  and  sweet  potatoes  are  other  products 
of  the  coast,  although  relatively  small  in  quantity.  Much 
of  the  sugar-cane  produced  is  used  for  the  manufacture  of 
rum,  which,  as  in  Peru  and  Bolivia,  is  consumed  in  the 
interior,  to  the  serious  detriment  of  the  mestizo  and  Indian 
classes.  The  production  of  sugar  in  1910  was  8,750  tons, 
but  it  did  not  meet  the  home  demand.  The  tobacco  grown 
in  Ecuador  is  of  excellent  quality.  The  vegetable  ivory 
nut,  or  "  tagua,"  is  the  exported  product  most  valuable 
after  the  cacao,  and  Ecuador  forms  one  of  the  principal 
sources  of  the  world's  supply  of  this  article,  of  which  some 
19,000  tons  annually  are  exported.  In  the  uplands,  not- 
withstanding the  latitude,  cereals  are  grown,  wheat,  maize, 
oats,  and  barley,  but  the  production  is  insufficient  for  home 
requirements.  In  the  temperate  valleys  grapes  are  culti- 
vated, both  for  fruit  and  wine,  and  on  the  grazing-lands  of 
the  plateaux  and  slopes  of  the  Cordillera,  cattle,  horses, 
and  mules  are  bred,  and  the  last-named  exported  in  small 
quantities.  Sheep  are  also  reared  for  meat  and  wool,  which 
latter  is  used  in  the  domestic  manufactures.  Sheep  farming 
is  an  industry  capable  of  extension  in  Ecuador.  Of  forest 
products,  cane  for  building  purposes,  the  well-known  caha 
de  Guayaquil,  and  fibre,  rubber,  and  chichona  bark,  or 
quinine,  are  among  the  principal.  Rubber  gathering  is  a 
comparatively  new  industry,  and  is  derived  from  the 
Castilloa,  not  the  Hevea  tree,  which  does  not  grow  on 
the  western  side  of  the  Andes.  In  1910  552  tons  were 
exported. 

There  are  still  vast  tracts  of  land  in  Ecuador,  both  on  the 
lower  west  coast  region  and  in  the  interior,  capable  of  exten- 
sive cultivation  ;  especially  in  the  coast  region  as  concerns 
the  production  of  cocoa,  coffee,  and  rubber.  Industries  of 
the  cultivation  of  hat  and  hammock  fibres  and  straws, 
henequen  or  sisal  hemp,  maguey,  the  tagua,  or  ivory  nut, 
and  many  valuable  timbers  and  plants  and  products,  both 
known  and  unknown  to  commerce  at  present  might  flourish 
more  extensively.  But  the  conditions  of  the  law,  the  un- 
sanitary state  of  the  principal  seaports,  and  even  of  some 


THE   REPUBLICS   OF   THE  ANDES— ECUADOR  273 

agricultural  regions,  and  the  character  of  the  natives,  who 
are  somewhat  jealous  of  the  foreigner,  are  factors  against 
immigration,  and  the  present  labour  supply,  although  poorly 
paid  and  extremely  backward,  is  sufficiently  occupied. 
With  added  labour  and  effort  the  exports  could  be  increased 
many  times  ;  and  great  areas  of  land  suitable  for  the  growth 
of  cereals,  potatoes,  fruit,  vegetables,  fodder,  and  cattle  be 
brought  into  cultivation ;  and  instead  of  the  meagre  popu- 
lation of  some  2,000,000  the  country  might  support 
twenty  times  that  number.  The  value  of  the  Ecuadorian  agri- 
cultural resources  has  increased  nevertheless  from  ;^i, 500,000 
in  1900  to  more  than  ^^3, 000,000  at  the  present  time. 

The  Galapagos  islands  may,  in  the  future,  be  of  some 
considerable  strategic  value,  lying  as  they  do  in  the  direct 
path  of  vessels  approaching  Panama  from  across  the  Pacific 
ocean  from  the  south-west.  They  include  five  large  and 
ten  smaller  islands,  lying  exactly  under  the  equator,  the 
nearest  being  580  miles  from  the  mainland ;  the  total  area 
being  about  2,800  square  miles.  They  contain  a  large 
number  of  volcanoes  or  craters,  some  active,  and  their 
name  is  derived  from  the  Galapago,  a  species  of  giant  tortoise 
which  abounds  there.  The  shores  are  fringed  with  man- 
groves, and  thick  vegetation  covers  parts  of  the  interior, 
but  generally  the  land  is  parched  and  rocky.  The  tem- 
perature is  modified  by  the  cold  Peruvian  current  somewhat. 
From  their  remarkably  isolated  position,  and  their  natural 
history  never  having  been  interfered  with,  they  possess  a 
peculiar  flora  and  fauna.  The  guano  and  orchilla  moss 
are  products  of  some  value  to  Ecuador,  and  there  is  a  penal 
settlement  on  Chatham  island. 

Foreign  enterprise  in  Ecuador  is  represented  principally 
by  the  railways,  electric  tramways,  and  gold  mines  ;  and 
there  are  two  German  and  one  British  enterprise  controlling 
large  cocoa  estates,  with  rubber  plantations.  The  Tcnguel 
plantation,  under  British  control,  is  an  important  estate, 
and  farm  hands  have  been  brought  in  from  Colombia. 

The  value  of  the  foreign  trade  of  Ecuador,  like  that  of 
some  others  of  the  smaller  South  American  states,  does  not 
fluctuate  greatly,  and  for  a  number  of  years  has  varied 

s 


274  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 

from  twenty-five  to  thirty-five  million  sucres  per  annum 
for  the  exports,  and  somewhat  over  half  that  amount  for 
the  imports;  that  is,  exports  to  a  value  of  two  and  a  half 
to  three  and  a  half  million  pounds  sterling,  the  sucre  being 
equivalent  to  two  shillings.  The  British  pound  sterling  is 
legal  tender  in  Ecuador  (as  in  Peru),  its  value  being  ten 
sucres.  The  imports  consist  mainly  of  textiles,  hardware 
and  machinery,  from  France,  the  United  States,  and  Britain ; 
also  Germany.  Ecuador  broke  off  relations  with  Germany 
during  the  war.  In  the  year  192 1-2  the  petroleum  fields — 
the  Anglo-Ecuadorian  Company — began  to  give  greater 
promise  of  oil  production.  The  principal  shipping  interests 
on  the  coast,  at  Guayaquil  and  other  ports,  are  British, 
Chilean  and  Peruvian,  each  of  which  now  maintains  coastal 
liners  between  Panama  and  Valparaiso. 

The  national  revenue  of  Ecuador  fluctuates  around 
20,000,000  sucres.  There  is  constant  difficulty  in  meeting 
expenditure  and  the  service  of  the  Foreign  Debt. 

The  future  of  Ecuador  is  bound  up  with  the  upraising  of 
its  working-class  and  Indian  folk,  and  no  real  progress  is 
attainable  as  long  as  these  remain  ignorant  or  exploited. 
There  are  excellent  elements  in  the  country  among  both 
the  upper  and  the  lower  strata  of  its  society,  and  it  is  time 
that  a  wholesome  and  genuine  forward  movement  were 
made — in  a  land  which  Providence  has  dowered  with  more 
than  a  sufficiency  of  natural  resources.  It  is  time  that  the 
ruling  class  should  forget  their  political  strife  and  personal 
ambitions,  such  as  have  been  so  marked  a  feature,  often  a 
terrible  one,  of  the  national  history.  The  development  of 
agriculture  on  the  one  hand,  and  of  small  manufacturing 
and  local  or  even  cottage  industries,  for  which  the  native 
aptitude  is  considerable,  on  the  other,  are  needful  elements 
in  the  desired  progress. 


THE   REPUBLICS   OF   THE  ANDES— BOLIVIA  275 


CHAPTER  IX 
THE   REPUBLICS   OF   THE  ANDES— BOLIVIA 

The  great  mountain  republic  of  Bolivia,  notwithstanding 
that  it  has  been,  to  the  outside  world,  little  more  than  a 
name,  partakes  very  largely  in  both  the  historical  and  topo- 
graphical interest  of  its  more  prominent  neighbour  Peru, 
with  which  it  has  much  in  common,  and  of  which  in  viceregal 
times  it  formed  part.  The  same  vast  mountain  range  of  the 
Cordillera  of  the  Andes — more  stupendous  indeed  in  some 
respects  than  in  Peru  and  Ecuador — dominates  the  land 
and  has  determined  its  hfe,  character,  and  environment. 
The  people  who  dwell  there,  and  the  social  system,  share 
equally  with  Peru  their  origin,  but  preserve  their  own 
traditions  and  individuality. 

Bolivia  is  bounded  on  the  west,  and  shut  off  from  the 
Pacific  coast,  by  Peru  and  Chile  :  on  the  east  and  north  lies 
the  enormous  expanse  of  Brazil,  and  on  the  south  Argen- 
tina and  Paraguay.  Thus  the  republic  is  entirely  an  inland 
country,  without  direct  access  to  the  seaboard  :  a  condition 
due  to  the  loss  of  the  httoral  province  of  Antofagasta  in  the 
Chilean  war.  It  is  partly  as  a  result  of  this  isolation  that 
Bolivia  has  remained  comparatively  so  little  known  to  the 
outside  world,  and  that  its  economic  development  has  been 
so  long  delayed.  Bolivia  is  the  third  political  division  in 
point  of  size  in  South  America,  estimates  of  its  area  varying 
between  520,000  and  703,000  square  miles  ;  nearly  two-thirds 
of  the  country  lie  within  the  Andean  mountain  zone  :  the 
remainder  forming  part  of  the  great  Central  Plains  of  the 
continent. 

The  Andes  reach  their  greatest  width  and  development 
in  this  part  of  South  America  ;   displaying  colossal  parallel 


276  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

ranges  crowned  with  snow-capped  peaks  and  enclosing 
broad  tablelands  and  profound  river  valleys.  The  snowy 
range  extending  from  mount  Sorata  or  Llampu,  to  mount 
Illimani,  in  an  unbroken  line,  is  one  of  the  most  striking 
portions  of  the  Andes  ;  as  is  well  seen  from  the  west  in 
crossing  lake  Titicaca  :  and  the  great  lacustrine  basin  of 
Titicaca,  the  lake  and  the  desolate  punas  or  plains  surround- 
ing it,  are  overlooked  by  a  number  of  snow-clad  peaks, 
ranging  from  19,000  to  21,000  feet  elevation.  Bolivia, 
although  lying  entirely  within  the  tropics,  is,  like  Peru  and 
Ecuador,  characterised  by  climatic  conditions  of  an  Arctic 
nature  in  its  rugged,  elevated  territory.  The  mountain 
masses  of  Bolivia  form  one  of  the  most  impressive  and 
inclement  regions  in  the  world  :  and  possess  features  of 
considerable  interest  and  economic  value.  Thus,  the  greater 
part  of  the  west  and  south  central  portions  of  Bolivia  is 
mountainous,  and  many  of  the  loftiest  summits  of  the 
Western  Hemisphere,  the  main  line  of  heights,  are  contained 
in  the  different  ramifications  of  the  Eastern  Cordillera,  or 
Cordillera  Real.  Between  this  and  the  Western  Cordillera 
is  included  part  of  the  great  plateau  and  interior  basin, 
the  Altiplanicie  Central,  about  500  miles  in  length,  with 
an  elevation  of  12,000  to  13,000  feet,  the  northern  half 
of  which  is  occupied  by  lake  Titicaca,  and  the  southern 
parts  by  lake  Poopo  or  Aullagas,  and  other  sahne  bodies 
of  water.  These  constituted  at  one  time  a  vast  united 
inland  sea,  the  outlet  of  which  was  through  the  Beni  river, 
to  the  Amazon,  through  the  gorge  of  La  Paz,  as  before 
described.  The  loftiest  mountain  summits  are  the  non- 
volcanic  peaks  of  Illampu,  21,490  feet,  and  Illimani,  21,190 
feet,  both  in  the  department  of  La  Paz.  Huayna  Potosi, 
between  these,  has  an  elevation  of  20,260  feet.  Potosi, 
upon  this  mountain,  is  the  highest  town  in  the  world. 

Bolivia  is,  however,by  no  means  of  an  entirely  mountainous 
or  elevated  nature  :  for  more  than  a  third  of  its  area  is 
composed  of  alluvial  lowlands.  North  and  east  of  the 
mountains  the  country  falls  away  in  vast,  undulating  plains 
to  the  valleys  of  the  Amazon  basin,  and  the  Gran  Chaco  of 
Argentina.     A  part  of  this  great  lowland  region  is  covered 


THE  REPUBLICS  OF  THE   ANDES— BOLIVIA  277 

with  extensive  swamps,  subject  to  inundation  and  of  little  use 
at  present  for  pastoral  or  agricultural  purposes  :  but  the 
extensive  llanos,  or  plains,  of  Guarayos  and  Mojos,  contain 
rich  agricultural  districts,  where  cattle-raising  has  been 
successfully  carried  on  since  the  industry  was  introduced 
by  the  Jesuit  missions  in  past  centuries.  These  great  plains 
and  the  valuable  forestal  areas,  and  the  fertile  sub  tropic 
valleys  in  the  lower  Andean  region,  redeem  the  country 
from  a  natural  reproach  of  sterility  ;  and  they  demonstrate 
its  capabiHties  for  sustaining  a  large  population.  The 
outlet  for  the  great  plains  is  the  Madeira  river  and  its 
tributaries,  which  are  being  improved  for  navigation  to  the 
Amazon  :  especially  by  the  Madeira-Mamore  railway : 
and  to  the  affluents  of  the  River  Plate,  with  their  outlet 
through  the  republics  of  the  Plate, 

The  variations  of  temperature  experienced  in  Bohvia, 
due  to  elevation,  as  opposed  to  latitude,  are  very  marked. 
Upon  the  high  tablelands,  or  puna  brava,  as  the  natives  term 
the  cold  highlands,  in  distinction  to  the  yungas,OT  lowlands, 
furious  storms  are  encountered,  with  striking  electrical 
effects,  as  described  elsewhere.  Lake  Titicaca  is  at  times 
lashed  to  fury  by  these  storms.  The  lower  punas  from  1 1 ,000 
to  12,500  feet,  which  include  most  of  the  great  central  plateaux 
of  Bolivia,  have  two  seasons  :  winter  and  a  cold  summer- 
autumn,  too  short  for  the  production  of  any  crops  except 
barley  and  potatoes.  Above  this  the  puna  brava  extends, 
a  bleak,  inhospitable  region,  whose  only  inhabitants  are 
scattered  miners  and  shepherds  ;  and  bands  of  alpacas, 
llamas,  and  vicuiias  ;  and  sheep  where  the  scanty  vegetation 
affords  any  means  of  livelihood  for  such.  The  tin  mines  of 
Bolivia  have  acquired  some  importance  :  they  are  situated 
in  extremely  high  bleak  regions,  where  the  conditions  of  life 
are  trying  for  the  foreigner.  The  mining  communities  in 
this  part  of  South  America  form  the  highest  inhabited  places 
on  the  globe. 

The  total  population  of  Bolivia  is  estimated  at  nearly  three 
million,  more  than  half  of  which  are  Indians,  40  per  cent, 
mestizos,  and  the  remainder  whites,  more  or  less  mixed  with 
the  mestizos.    As  in  Peru  and  the  other  Andean  countries. 


278  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH  AMERICA 

the  Indians  of  the  highlands  are  those  who  hved  under  the 
scmi-civiHsation  of  the  Incas,  and  are  now  Christianised.  The 
Indian  of  the  forests,  the  Guayos  and  Chiquitos  and  others, 
are  distinct ;  but  they  were  organised  and  taught  by  the 
Jesuits,  and  since  the  expulsion  of  these  have  retrograded 
somewhat.  The  Indians'  worst  vice  is  the  excessive  use  of 
alcoholic  drinks,  for  which  they  will  barter  almost  anything. 
The  fiery  rum  they  consume  is  manufactured  largely  in  the 
sugar  estates  of  Bolivia  and  Peru.  Sunk  in  a  lamentable 
state  of  ignorance,  due  partly  to  this  defect  and  to  the  atti- 
tude of  the  ruling  and  propertied  classes,  these  generally 
peaceful  and  industrious  people  show  little  or  no  signs  of 
social  advancement  :  nor  can  it  be  said  that  they  are  in- 
creasing in  numbers,  except  in  respect  of  one  or  two  tribes, 
who  in  the  lowlands  enjoy  better  conditions.  Of  the  savage 
tribes  of  Indians  in  the  very  remote  and  practically  unex- 
plored regions  little  is  known  ;  and  they  still  dwell  unmo- 
lested in  almost  impenetrable  wilds.  The  mestizos,  who 
number  about  half  a  million  throughout  the  country,  are 
also  extremely  backward,  taking  into  consideration  the 
advantages  of  the  Spanish  language  and  possibilities  of 
civilisation  which  they  possess.  They  are  often  apathetic, 
superstitious  and  intemperate,  and  the  century  of  self- 
government  which  Bolivia  has  enjoyed  has  not  shown  much 
result.  It  would  be  unfair,  however,  to  suppose  that  they 
differ  greatly  in  these  matters  from  their  neighbours,  and  it 
cannot  be  doubted  that  education  may  in  time  bring  about 
their  development  as  a  useful  and  active  people,  and  upon 
them  the  country  must  mainly  depend  for  labour.  Much 
good  might  be  brought  about  by  vigorous  immigration, 
and  of  this  the  governing  classes  are  generally  aware  ;  and 
efforts  are  made  to  encourage  immigrants.  But  time  must 
elapse  before  the  tide  of  emigrating  humanity  from  Europe 
is  likely  to  be  directed  to  such  remote  regions. 

The  city  of  La  Paz,  the  principal  city  of  the  republic,  is 
attaining  growing  importance  due  to  increasing  railway 
building.  It  is  served  by  the  line  from  Antofagasta, 
on  the  Chilean  coast,  the  seaport  formerly  belonging  to 
Bolivia  ;    and  the  railway  which  reaches  the  capital  via 


THE  REPUBLICS  OF  THE  ANDES— BOLIVIA  279 

Uynini  and  Oruro,  skirting  lake  Poopo.  The  southern 
railway  of  Peru,  from  MoUendo,  Arequipa  and  Puno,  via 
lake  Titicaca,  and  the  new  railway  from  Arica  to  La  Paz 
both  put  the  city  in  communication  with  the  coast,  and 
thus  it  enjoys  three  routes  of  access.  From  Uynini  a  hne  to 
the  south  at  Tupiza,  when  completed,  will  unite  the  railway 
system  of  the  repubhc  with  that  of  the  Argentine,  which  would 
be  of  great  importance,  as  this  route  will  give  BoHvia  an 
outlet  by  rail  to  the  Atlantic.  The  construction  of  other 
lines  is  projected  towards  the  navigable  affluents  of  the 
Amazon,  mainly  the  Beni,  which  is  the  principal  waterway 
of  Bolivia.  The  government  of  the  republic  is  committed 
to  a  vigorous  railway-building  policy,  limited  only  by  its 
financial  resources,  which  there  is  tendency  to  tax  too  heavily, 
as  later  observed.  It  is  but  a  few  years  since  La  Paz  was 
isolated  from  the  world,  without  means  of  transport  except 
that  of  ill-maintained  coach  and  mule  roads,  and  the  advent 
of  the  railway  brings  the  community  to  another  age.  The 
approach  to  La  Paz  by  rail  is  striking  and  peculiar.  Tra- 
versing the  high  uplands  after  ascending  from  the  coast, 
the  line  approaches  the  edge  of  a  deep  precipice,  and  the 
city  is  suddenly  seen  in  its  marvellous  valley  1,000  feet 
below,  spreading  out  with  its  towers,  buildings,  parks,  and 
avenues  seen  in  miniature,  reminiscent  of  a  relief  map  or 
model.  The  descent  to  the  city  from  the  plateau  is  per- 
formed by  an  electric  railway,  which  descends  the  side  of 
the  great  barranca,  or  valley. 

La  Paz  is  not  the  political  capital  of  the  country,  that 
distinction  belonging  to  Sucre,  a  town  of  less  importance. 
The  population  of  La  Paz  is  estimated  at  about  107,000. 
The  city  shares  the  characteristics  of  its  sister  mountain 
capitals  of  Spanish  America,  especially  of  Quito  and  Are- 
quipa, in  the  presence  of  a  large  Indian  population,  whose 
national  dress  and  primitive  occupations  form  a  strongly 
contrasting  background  for  the  upper  classes,  with  their 
Europeanised  manners  and  costumes.  The  sandalled  and 
poncho-covered  Indian  in  the  streets  and  plazas  rubs 
shoulders  with  the  black-coated  professional  and  upper 
classes,  and  contrasts  with  the  Parisian  attire  of  their  ladies 


28o  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH  AMERICA 

The  Indians  form  about  35  per  cent,  of  the  inhabitants  of 
the  city,  and  constitute  its  menial  and  poorest  class.  The 
white  population,  numbering  some  40,000  souls,  constitutes 
the  ruling  and  professional  classes.  They  are  descendants 
of  Spaniards  and  other  Europeans  who  have  remained  un- 
mixed, or  only  partially  mixed,  with  the  aboriginal  inhabi- 
tants ;  and  in  them  is  mainly  vested  the  wealth  and  educa- 
tion of  the  community.  They  are  lawyers,  doctors,  bankers, 
business  men,  statesmen,  politicians,  and  so  forth,  and  form 
a  class  much  apart.  The  membership  of  the  senate  and 
congress  are  drawn  from  this  class,  which  holds  all  the 
official  posts.  They  dress  well,  after  the  manner  of  London 
or  Paris,  and  are  to  be  seen,  as  in  Lima  or  Mexico,  or  other 
Latin  American  capitals,  in  the  theatres  and  cafes  whenever 
opportunity  presents.  The  women  dress  equally  well,  often 
extravagantly,  after  the  manner  of  the  Latin  American 
upper  class  generally,  who  are  notably  addicted  to  extrava- 
gance in  dress  ;  but  they  are  of  the  attractive  and  affable 
character  which  is  a  pleasing  feature  of  the  Latin  American 
woman  ;  and  the  invigorating  environment  of  the  moun- 
tains has  produced  in  Bolivia  a  complexion  less  pallid  than 
among  the  women  of  the  coast  cities.  The  mestizo  class, 
between  whom  and  the  whites  no  hard  and  fast  line  can 
be  drawn  in  the  upland  regions,  forms  about  32  per  cent, 
of  the  population  of  La  Paz,  and  to  them  fall  the  petty 
town  industries  of  small  shopkeeping  ;  and  they  are  also 
mechanics,  artisans,  domestic  servants  and  the  like. 

Due  to  the  elevation  above  sea  level,  of  11,000  feet,  the 
climate  of  La  Paz  is  bracing,  often  cold  for  the  European, 
and  the  cold  is  felt  more  keenly  by  reason  of  the  absence  of 
fires  in  the  houses.  The  mean  annual  temperature  is  50°  F. 
Stoves  are  not  used  in  La  Paz,  and  this  is  the  usual  Spanish 
American  custom  ;  the  inhabitant  considers  that  pulmonary 
troubles  accrue  from  the  use  of  such.  Pneumonia  and 
bronchial  complaints  are  common,  but  consumption  is  rare. 

The  river  Chuquiapo,  upon  which  La  Paz  is  built,  in  the 
deeply-wooded  valley  of  the  Cordillera  Real,  was,  it  is  con- 
sidered, the  outlet  of  lake  Titicaca  in  earlier  times.  The 
valley  is  of  a  barren  nature,  and  its  precipitous  sides,  scarred 


THE  REPUBLICS   OF  THE   ANDES— BOLIVIA  281 


by  torrential  rains  and  dyed  by  solutions  from  mineral 
ores,  rise  1,500  feet  above  the  city  to  the  margin  of  the 
great  Titicaca  plateau  :  the  city  lies  in  the  puna  eleva- 
tion and  zone,  notwithstanding  its  situation  in  the  depres- 
sion, and  the  summers  are  short  and  cool.  The  valley  de- 
scends thence  through  a  more  fertile  region  to  the  temperate, 
and  lower  down  to  the  tropical  zone.  The  transverse 
streets  of  the  city  are  steep  and  irregular,  the  ground  rising 
rapidly  from  the  river,  and  are  generally  narrow  and 
roughly  paved,  with  numerous  small  bridges.  The  cathe- 
dral was  begun  at  the  time  when  the  mines  of  Potosi  were 
pouring  out  their  wealth,  but  was  never  finished,  due  to  the 
poverty  of  the  community  later.  It  has  a  finely-carved 
stone  fa9ade,  facing  upon  the  great  plaza.  There  are  other 
notable  buildings  of  brick  and  stone,  but  the  houses  of  the 
poor  are  of  mud.  Among  them  is  the  old  San  Andre 
university,  in  which  fortunately  are  preserved  many  relics 
of  the  Inca  ruins  of  Tiahuanaco  and  elsewhere  ;  saved  from 
the  vandalism  of  the  modern  railway  builders,  who  took 
away  trainloads  of  prehistoric  stone  blocks  and  sculptures 
to  form  bridges  and  warehouses. 

Bolivia  is  divided  into  eight  departments  and  a  territory, 
as  follows  (estimate  of  1918) : 


Department. 

Are.\ 
Sq.  miles. 

Pop. 

Capital. 

Pop. 

La  Paz 

53,777 

734.000 

La  Paz 

107,300 

El  Beni 

102,111 

50,000 

Trinidad 

3,200 

Oruro 

19,127 

137,000 

Oruro 

6,100 

Cochabamba 

23.328 

513,000 

Cochabamba 

30,800 

Santa  Cruz 

141,368 

328,000 

Santa  Cruz 

25,800 

Potosi 

48,801 

516,000 

Potosi 

30,000 

Chuquisaca 

26,418 

320,000 

Sucre 

11,700 

Tarija 

33.036 

1 60,000 

Tarija 

30,800 

Nat.  Territories 

192,260 

63,000 

Riberalta 

1,000 

There  are  no  other  populous  towns  beyond  the  provincial 
capitals.  Four  of  these  capitals,  those  of  Sucre  or  Chuqui- 
saca, La  Paz,  Cochabamba  and  Oruro,  have  at  different 
times  served  as  the  national  capital.  After  the  revolution 
of  1898  the  capital  was  fixed  at  La  Paz,  which  is  the  com- 
mercial metropolis,  and  more  accessible  than  Sucre.  Among 
the  smaller  towns  which  have  attained  some  prominence 


282  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 

due  to  some  special  industry  or  commercial  position  may  be 
instanced  the  Huanchaca  mining  centre  of  Pulacayo,  with 
a  population  of  8,000,  where  more  than  3,000  men  are 
employed  in  the  silver  mines  and  works  of  this  important 
mining  company  ;  Uyuni,  with  a  population  of  3,000,  at  the 
junction  of  the  Pulacayo  branch  line  with  the  Antofagasta 
and  Oruro  railway,  where  converge  several  important 
highways  and  projected  railways ;  and  Tupiza,  with  a 
population  of  2,500,  the  commercial  and  mining  centre  near 
the  Argentine  frontier,  and  the  terminus  of  the  Argentine 
railway  extension  into  Bolivia.  All  these  towns  are  in  the 
department  of  Potosi.  Viacha,  with  a  population  of  2,000,  is 
a  station  on  the  railway  from  Guaqui  to  La  Paz,  fourteen 
miles  from  the  latter,  and  the  starting  point  of  an  important 
projected  railway  to  Oruro.  In  the  department  of  Cocha- 
bamba  is  Tarata,  with  5,500  inhabitants,  and  Totora,  with 
4,500,  two  trading  centres  of  some  importance  ;  and  in  the 
department  of  Santa  Cruz  is  Ascension,  with  a  population  of 
5,800,  with  a  large  mission  station  in  the  Chiquitos  hills. 

The  government  of  Bolivia  is  a  highly  centralised  as 
opposed  to  a  federal  system,  representative  according  to  its 
constitution,  but  autocratic  in  its  working.  The  constitu- 
tion of  1880  was  a  model  in  its  form  and  intention,  like  those 
of  the  Latin  American  republics  generally  ;  a  result  of  the 
lawyer-hke  temperament  of  their  statesmen.  The  Executive 
is  composed  of  the  president,  vice-presidents,  and  five  min- 
isters of  state,  whose  portfolios  are  :  foreign  relations  and 
worship  ;  finance  and  industry  ;  interior  and  "  fomento  "  ; 
justice  and  education,  and  war  and  colonisation.  The 
legislative  branch  consists  in  the  senate  and  chamber 
of  deputies  ;  the  first  of  sixteen  members,  two  from  each 
department,  elected  by  direct  popular  vote  for  a  period  of 
six  years  with  one-third  retiring  every  two  years  ;  and  the 
second  of  seventy-two  members,  elected  for  four  years, 
one  half  retiring  every  two  years.  Suffrage  is  exercised  by 
all  male  citizens  twenty-one  years  of  age,  if  married,  or 
eighteen  if  unmarried,  who  can  read  or  write  or  own  real 
estate  or  have  an  income  of  200  bolivianos  per  annum.  The 
electoral   body  is  by  these   reasons  small,  and  no  matter 


THE  REPUBLICS  OF  THE  ANDES— BOLIVIA  283 

what  party  is  in  power  the  community  is  ruled  and  controlled 
by  a  political  oligarchy.  The  Judiciary  consists  in  a 
national  supreme  court,  and  eight  superior  district  courts, 
and  lesser  officials.  The  departments  are  administered  by 
prefects,  appointed  by  the  president,  and  in  their  turn  they 
appoint  all  subordinate  officials,  sub-prefects,  alcaldes  and 
corregidores ;  there  are  no  legislative  assemblies  in  the 
departments,  and  the  system  of  government  easily  tends  to 
become  autocratic.  Given  the  sparsely  settled  regions  and 
character  of  the  people  this  is  to  a  certain  extent  inevitable. 

Education  in  Bolivia  is  backward,  and  only  a  small 
proportion  of  the  people  can  read  and  write,  but  under  the 
free  and  compulsory  educational  system,  the  number  of 
schools  is  increasing  considerably  of  late.  Spanish,  which 
is  the  official  language,  and  that  spoken  by  the  educated 
and  mestizo  classes,  is  in  a  minority,  the  people  generally 
speaking  their  aboriginal  Quechua,  Aymara,  and  Guarani 
tongues;  and  these  form  the  bulk  of  the  population.  Many 
of  the  schools  are  entirely  of  modern  equipment,  and  there 
are  a  number  of  foreign  teachers.  There  are  only  two 
universities  in  Bolivia  which  possess  more  than  one  faculty, 
those  of  La  Paz  and  Sucre,  at  both  of  which  degrees  may 
be  obtained  in  law,  medicine  and  theology;  while  at  La 
Paz  there  is  also  a  commercial  faculty.  There  is  a  normal 
school  for  training  teachers  of  Indians  at  La  Paz;  also  a 
normal  school  for  teachers,  and  a  national  school  of  com- 
merce, with  a  women's  section.  The  total  number  of  schools 
in  the  republic  is  1265,  with  about  60,000  pupils.  There  are 
Boy  Scout  and  Girl  Guide  organisations,  which  have  been 
well  received  by  the  public.  The  schools  known  as  the 
American  Institute  at  La  Paz  and  Cochabamba  have  met 
with  considerable  success  and  receive  a  government  subsidy. 
The  national  mining  school  has  acquired  some  importance, 
and  the  engineering  profession  should  attract  the  Bolivian. 

As  regards  the  church,  the  Bolivian  state  supports  the 
Roman  Apostolic  religion,  and  public  worship  is  prohibited 
by  law,  as  in  Peru,  except  in  the  foreign  colonies,  where  it 
is  tolerated,  and  this  toleration  is  tacitly  extended  to 
resident  foreigners  of  other  religions.     The  census  of  1900 


284  CENTRAL   AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

shewed  1,609,000  of  the  Roman  CathoHc  population,  and 
24,300  of  other  creeds.  The  Indians  greatly  reverence  the 
clergy — reverence  mixed  with  the  superstition  of  their 
ancestors  ;  and  they  are  deeply  influenced  by  the  ceremonies 
of  the  church,  which  are  scarcely  modified  since  the  early 
Spanish  times.  Bolivia  contains  an  archbishopric  and 
three  bishoprics.  Mission  work  among  the  Indians  is  in 
charge  of  the  Propaganda  Fide,  which  has  five  colleges  and 
a  number  of  missions,  with  a  state  subsidy,  and  some  20,000 
Indians  are  directly  controlled.  The  rehgious  orders 
maintain  several  convents. 

Industrial  activity  in  BoKvia  is  in  a  rudimentary  condition. 
Herds  of  cattle  and  horses  are  maintained  on  the  plains, 
and  meat  is  supplied,  both  fresh  and  as  jerked  beef,  from  the 
saladeros,  or  salting  establishments,  for  home  consumption. - 
The  breeding  of  llamas  and  alpacas  on  the  high  uplands  is 
a  peculiar  industry  of  Bolivia,  as  it  is  in  Peru  ;  and  the  upland 
flocks  supply  the  world's  demand  for  the  various  classes  of 
the  wool,  including  the  vicuna  wool.  The  natives  weave 
their  own  garments,  employing  primitive  spindles  as  in  the 
time  of  the  Incas,  and  looms  of  rude  early  Inca  or  colonial 
type,  as  described  for  Peru.  They  produce  an  excellent 
home-spun,  and  very  fine  fabrics  are  woven  both  from  sheep 
and  vicuna  wool,  the  women  being  especially  expert  :  and 
the  fabrics  thus  manufactured  by  the  women  often  bring 
a  high  price.  Formerly  the  Cholos  of  Bolivia  and  Peru 
made  their  own  beautiful  dyes,  but  these  are  being  sup- 
planted by  the  cheap  German  article,  and  the  same  is  happen- 
ing with  the  woven  fabrics  to  some  extent,  to  the  impover- 
ishment of  these  excellent  cottage  industries.  The  llama 
and  alpaca  were  domesticated  by  the  early  Peruvians  far 
back  in  history  before  the  Spanish  advent,  whilst  the  vicufia 
and  guanaco  are  wild  and  are  encountered  in  great  bands  or 
smaller  groups  by  the  traveller  on  these  inclement  uplands. 
The  llama  is  the  most  valued  possession  of  the  native.  It 
performs  all  his  carrying  trade,  except  where  mule-trains 
are  in  use,  and  marches  along  at  four  miles  an  hour,  carrying 
up  to  100  lbs.,  feeding  itself  as  it  goes.  Its  coarse  wool 
furnishes  the  material  for  the  native's  clothes,  from  which 


THE  REPUBLICS  OF  THE  ANDES— BOLIVIA  285 

the  Indian  and  his  women  weave  their  cloth,  sometimes 
resembHng  in  pattern  and  texture  a  British  tweed.  The 
llama  is  the  only  hoofed  ruminating  quadruped  or  beast  of 
burden  that  America,  in  its  pre-Hispanic  condition,  pro- 
duced, and  prior  to  the  advent  of  the  horse  and  ox  was  the 
only  servant  of  man  upon  the  desolate  steppes  of  the  Andes, 
and  remains  so  over  vast  areas  to-day. 

The  fauna  also  includes  deer,  the  monkey,  tapir,  wild 
boar,  wolf,  chinchilla,  anteater,  jaguar,  foxes,  wild  cats, 
ostrich,  condor,  flamingo,  parrot,  wild  turkey,  bird  of 
paradise,  quail,  snipe,  and  all  kinds  of  water-fowl.  The 
forests  are  characterised  by  a  great  variety  of  genera  and 
species:  a  single  acre  of  land  may  contain  hundreds  of 
different  trees  and  shrubs,  with  many  orchids  and  other 
rare  and  beautiful  flowers  and  timbers. 

Among  agricultural  products  maize  and  potatoes  were 
valuable  native  foods  before  the  Spanish  advent,  and  are  the 
staple  articles  of  diet.  The  sugar-cane  plantations  of  the 
lowlands  are  largely  devoted  to  the  production  of  rum, 
which  commands  a  good  sale;  and  the  manufacture  of 
this  aguardiente  is  often  more  profitable  than  that  of  sugar. 
Its  consumption,  however,  is  a  serious  vice,  and  is  extremely 
detrimental  to  the  Indians,  but  national  interests  are  unfor- 
tunately often  secondary  to  private  profits  and  the  sale  to 
the  Indians  of  alcohol  continues.  The  Indians  are  also 
fond  of  the  cakes  of  brown  sugar,  which  are  largely  con- 
sumed. Tobacco,  cocoa,  coffee,  all  of  excellent  quahty, 
are  grown  in  the  warm  valleys  of  eastern  Bolivia,  but  have 
no  market  beyond  the  local  one.  Coca,  which  produces  the 
leaf  so  highly  prized  by  the  Cholo  population  of  Bolivia 
and  Peru  for  its  sustaining  qualities,  and  which  is  the 
raw  material  of  cocaine,  is  cultivated  to  a  considerable 
extent  in  Bolivia,  as  is  the  quinoa,  a  valuable  product 
and  staple  article  of  food  among  the  natives  of  the  Andes. 
The  Bolivian  cinchona  bark  yields  the  highest  percentage 
of  quinine  sulphate  of  any  in  the  Montana,  and  large  areas 
of  virgin  forests  of  the  trees  exist,  although  they  are  dimin- 
ishing rapidly. 

Notwithstanding  its  great  natural  resources,  the  cost  of 


286  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 

food  and  living,  fuel  and  other  matters  in  the  Bolivian 
capital  is  often  very  high,  and  has  increased  rapidly  of  late. 
The  fault  is  laid  by  local  economists  partly  to  the  high 
freight  charges  on  the  railways  and  an  increase  of  commercial 
activity  resulting  on  the  increased  production  of  tin,  and  to 
heavy  importations  of  gold  by  the  banks  as  a  reserve.  The 
prices  of  various  articles  of  common  consumption  in  such 
situations  is  very  high ;  even  those  procurable  in  the  country. 
It  is  a  common  condition  of  Latin  American  towns  that 
small  local  supplies,  fresh  vegetables  and  so  forth,  are  diffi- 
cult to  obtain,  the  result  of  indolence  or  ignorance  in  matters 
of  market  gardening.  Imported  tinned  goods  are  largely 
consumed  by  the  upper  classes,  but  these  are  expensive. 

Fuel  in  Bolivia  is  also  exceedingly  high-priced.  Coal  on 
the  railways  to  the  coast  costs  £8  per  ton,  and  in  the  Potosi 
mines,  £14  ;  in  the  town  of  Potosi  wood  fuel  costs  £6  ; 
charcoal,  £y  los.  ;  yareta  and  taquia,  the  vegetable  and 
animal  fuels  before  described,  £1  6s.  per  ton.  The  exploita- 
tion of  the  petroleum  beds  should  be  of  value  in  this  con- 
nection. 

As  shown,  manufacturing  in  Bolivia  is  still  in  a  primitive 
condition,  textile  fabrics  being  made  largely  as  cottage 
industries  ;  and  fine,  serviceable  fabrics  are  made  in  the 
Andean  departments,  as  in  Peru.  Saddlery  and  tanning 
are  carried  on  with  excellent  results,  and  robes  and  rugs 
from  alpaca  skins  are  made,  for  which  there  is  a  demand. 
Native  industry  also  supplies  cigars  and  cigarettes, 
soap,  candles,  hats,  gloves,  cheese,  pottery,  and  starch. 
Some  of  the  Bolivian  pottery  is  excellent  and  of  handsome 
appearance,  and  the  ceramic  art  was  largely  inherited  from 
the  Incas.  Sugar  is  made  by  old-fashioned  methods,  and 
there  is  some  production  of  wines  and  spirits. 

Water  power  is  one  of  the  native  assets  of  Bolivia, 
which  will  doubtless  be  more  fully  developed  in  the 
future. 

The  flora  of  BoHvia  is  extremely  varied,  embracing  both 
the  products  of  the  cold  and  tropical  zones.  Among  the 
ahmentary  plants  are  the  following  :  wheat,  corn,  chickpeas, 
beans,  manioc,  bananas,  sweet  and  white  potatoes,  barley, 


THE  REPUBLICS  OF  THE  ANDES-BOLIVIA  287 

rice,  pea-nuts,  olives,  almonds,  cacao,  coffee,  and  nutmeg, 
and  many  others.  There  are  many  kinds  of  fine  woods 
suitable  for  all  industrial  purposes,  such  as  railway  ties, 
building  and  cabinet  making,  some  of  which  are  as  hard 
as  iron,  and  valuable  from  that  reason.  Rubber,  Peruvian 
bark,  and  a  multitude  of  medicinal  plants  abound  in  this 
soil,  and* among  the  indigenous  plants  are  the  palm, 
cacao,  bamboo,  the  mate  (or  Paraguay  tea),  and  the  coca. 
The  export  of  rubber  reaches  some  5,000  tons.  Bolivia 
produces  also  balsam,  bananas,  vanilla,  copal,  cotton,  coffee, 
sugar,  tobacco,  corn,  potatoes,  the  chirimoya,  farina,  and 
sarsaparilla.  The  coffee  and  cocoa  are  conceded  to  be  of 
the  finest  quality.  The  Bolivian  Indians  chew  large  quan- 
tities of  the  coca  leaf.  Fruits  and  all  tropical  products  are 
abundant,  where  cultivated. 

The  mineral  resources  of  Bolivia  are  very  important,  if, 
with  the  exception  of  tin,  comparatively  little  exploited. 
The  gold  mines  have  been  accredited  from  an  early  date 
with  a  large  production,  estimated,  as  from  the  middle  of 
the  sixteenth  century  to  the  end  of  the  nineteenth,  as 
having  yielded  a  value  of  more  than  £450,000,000,  largely 
from  placer  mining.  The  value  of  the  annual  output  of 
gold  is  about  £70,000  per  annum  ;  and  that  of  silver  more 
than  £500,000.  The  Potosi  mine,  with  a  large  output 
of  silver  during  viceregal  times,  was  one  of  the  most  famous 
in  the  world.  After  the  Conquest  the  Spaniards  rapidly 
extended  their  search  for  gold  and  silver  throughout  the 
land.  In  1548  Alonzo  de  Mendoza  founded  La  Paz — to-day 
one  of  the  principal  cities  in  the  republic — attracted  thither 
by  the  rich  gold  ore  of  the  rivers  of  that  section.  The  mines 
of  Chiquiaguillo  have  produced  great  quantities  of  gold  and 
nuggets  of  considerable  size  and  value,  and  in  1718  the 
Marquis  de  Castel-Fuerte  sold,  among  other  nuggets,  one 
encrusted  in  quartz  weighing  52 J  ounces,  of  which  47  were 
gold.  The  city  of  Potosi  was  founded  in  1545,  and  fifty 
years  later  it  had  reached  a  population  of  160,000,  due  to 
the  enormous  richness  of  the  mountain  at  whose  foothills 
the  city  stands.  The  city  became  a  goal  for  all  classes  of 
adventurers  :   bankrupt  Spanish  nobles,  merchants  anxious 


288  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 

to  acquire  rapid  wealth,  and  all  kinds  of  men  contributed 
to  make  Potosi  a  centre  of  prodigality,  romantic  adventure, 
revelry  and  disorder.  The  chronicles  of  the  city  are  inter- 
esting, and  depict  the  customs  of  those  ages,  with  all  their 
preoccupations  and  superstitions,  the  spirit  of  chivalry 
and  love  of  adventure.  Spanish  hidalgos  prided  them- 
selves on  squandering  great  fortunes  in  feasts  and  revelry, 
which  often  caused  jealousy  and  strife  among  the  bands 
into  which  the  city  was  divided. 

Religious  fanaticism  a.lso  was  a  characteristic  of  the 
times  :  and  in  order  to  insure  their  salvation  or  pardon  for 
their  sins,  the  miners  gave  very  large  sums  of  money  for  the 
building  of  churches  or  convents,  as  v/as  also  done  in  Mexico, 
and  for  this  reason  it  is  that  in  the  old  Spanish  American 
mining  towns  many  churches  are  found  to-day.  The  mines 
of  Potosi  had  been  worked  by  the  Incas,  and  at  night,  their 
historian  records,  the  hill  was  lighted  up  by  their  in- 
numerable little  furnaces,  called  "  guayras,"  wherein  the 
force  of  the  wind  was  employed  in  primitive  smelting. 

Silver  was  first  discovered  at  Potosi  in  1545,  and  the  yield 
up  to  the  present  time  from  the  mines  has  exceeded  three 
billion  dollars.  The  production  of  tin  follows  immediately 
after  that  of  silver,  the  chief  centre  bring  Huanuni.  Gold  is 
found  in  the  Andes  and  in  the  several  departments  of  La 
Paz  and  Santa  Cruz  ;  the  gold  washings  of  Tipuani  have 
yielded  large  results.  Copper  mining  has  been  extensively 
developed,  especially  in  the  districts  of  Corocoro  and  Chacar- 
illa.  Opals,  diamonds,  emeralds,  and  topazes  are  found. 
The  value  of  silver  exported  in  1918  was  7,500,000  bolivianos, 
with  26,000  tons  of  copper:  in  1897  the  production  of 
tin  was  about  3,000  tons,  but  reached  17,000  in  1905,  and 
49,000  tons  in  1918.  The  development  that  railway  facilities 
will  offer  to  this  industry,  as  well  as  to  the  general  progress 
of  the  country,  will  doubtless  be  considerable.  The  exploita- 
tion of  these  mineral  resources  has  been  hindered  by  the 
distance  of  the  mines  from  navigable  water,  and  the  expense 
of  transporting  the  metal  to  the  coast,  but  since  the  advent 
of  the  railways  and  the  discovery  of  coal,  which  is  found  in 


THE  REPUBLICS  OF  THE  ANDES— BOLIVIA  289 

the  departments  of  Beni  and  Chuquisaca,  the  revival  in 
mining  enterprise  has  been  noticeable. 

Probably  the  obstacles  offered  by  the  vast  mountain  walls 
of  the  Andes  to  free  traffic  and  means  of  communication  are 
compensated  by  the  prodigious  quantity  of  minerals  these 
contain,  and  the  region  of  the  Cordilleras  must  be  regarded 
as  a  great  storehouse  of  natural  wealth.  The  silver  mines  of 
Potosi,  Oruro,  Colquechaca,  Huanchaca,  and  many  others, 
have  contributed  hundreds  of  millions  to  the  richness  of  the 
world  ;  and  no  less  important  are  the  deposits  of  copper, 
bismuth,  zinc,  cobalt,  gold,  and  tin. 

Tin  to  the  value  of  more  than  £2,000,000  annually  has 
been  shipped  from  the  tin  mines  ;  a  single  Bolivian  mine- 
owner  draws  300,000  dollars  yearly  from  this  source.  The 
principal  deposits  of  tin  ore  are  found  in  the  eastern  high- 
lands of  the  main  Cordillera  ;  Sorata,  Illimani,  Huayna  and 
Potosi.  The  majority  of  the  deposits  are  still  unworked, 
and  may  be  expected  to  yield  largely  in  the  future.  La  Paz 
is  the  principal  mining  district  in  the  north,  Oruro  in  the 
centre,  Chorolque  in  the  south,  and  Potosi  in  the  east. 
Oruro  may  be  regarded  as  the  central  point  of  the  tin- 
producing  industry.  An  outstanding  feature  of  the  Bolivian 
tin  deposits  is  that  they  were  first  worked  for  silver,  and 
whilst  some  of  them  still  produce  it,  in  others  the  metal 
has  entirely  disappeared  and  given  place  to  tin  ores.  Huan- 
ani,  the  richest  of  the  tin  mines  in  the  department  of  Oruro, 
hes  some  fifteen  miles  from  the  Antofagasta  railway.  The, 
Cerro  de  Pozcani  mine  is  in  a  wild,  broken,  mountainous 
district  at  an  elevation  of  10,000  feet,  and  a  number  of  lodes 
have  been  exposed,  one  yielding  up  to  20  and  50  per  cent, 
of  cassiterite.  The  Morococala  mine,  south  of  Huanuni,  has 
a  vein  of  twelve  to  fifteen  feet  wide.  In  northern  Bolivia 
the  Huayna-Potosi  mines,  north  of  La  Paz,  and  the  Inquisivi 
mines  are  prominent,  lying  in  the  highlands  at  the  south- 
eastern extremity  of  lake  Titicaca  —mines  with  strong  lodes 
of  good  width  and  of  high-grade  cassiterite  ore,  at  eleva- 
tions of  16,000  feet,  and  capable  of  a  large  output  when 
fuller  development  shall  have  been  undertaken.  The  relatively 
slow  development  of  the  industry,  however,  lies  in  the  meagi'e 

T 


290  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 

railway  facilities  in  these  high  mining  districts  of  the  Andes. 
British,  French,  Chilean  and  other  capital  is  invested  in  the 
working  of  the  tin  deposits,  which  are  perhaps  the  most 
valuable  in  the  world. 

The  occurrence  of  petroleum  in  Bolivia  is  a  fortunate  one  : 
and  as  a  consequence  of  surveys  of  the  petroliferous  forma- 
tion occurring  in  the  south-eastern  frontier  of  Bolivia,  interest 
has  been  displayed  in  acquiring  mining  rights  in  that  region, 
with  a  view  to  its  exploitation.  The  existence  of  oil  has  been 
proved  along  a  belt  of  country  extending  from  north-west  to 
south-east,  a  distance  of  over  150  miles,  down  to  the 
Argentine  boundary  at  Yacuiva.  Thus,  the  petroliferous 
zone  traverses  the  eastern  provinces  of  Santa  Cruz,  Sucre, 
and  Tarija,  and  continues  into  the  Argentine  republic  to 
Comodoro  Rivadavia,  where  noteworthy  results  have  been 
obtained  by  recent  borings.  About  66,000  hectares  have 
been  taken  up  in  holdings,  embracing  altogether  about  230 
square  miles  of  ground  in  the  oil-bearing  region.  A  law  was 
sanctioned  at  the  end  of  the  year  191 1  exempting  the  holders 
of  mining  lands,  for  the  production  of  petroleum,  peat,  coal, 
lignite,  naphtha  and  sulphur  from  the  annual  fiscal  tax 
for  a  term  of  five  years.  As  the  projected  Yacuiva-Santa 
Cruz  railway  must  cut  through  the  centre  of  the  oil-bearing 
region,  the  difficulties  of  transport  will  be  obviated  in 
the  near  future.  The  production  of  oil  would  be  of  great 
advantage  to  Bolivia,  where  no  coal  measures  of  commercial 
importance  are  as  yet  known  to  exist. 

The  great  geological  agencies  that  have  transformed  the 
continent  of  South  America,  and  produced  the  uplifting 
of  the  Andes  are  very  marked  in  Bolivia.  The  high  plateau 
occupies  an  area  of  more  than  66,000  square  miles,  with  a 
mean  altitude  of  from  10,000  to  13,000  feet  above  sea  level  : 
and  the  forests  and  vast  plains  extending  eastwards,  with 
about  7,000  miles  of  navigable  rivers,  comprise  a  fertile  agri- 
cultural territory  embracing  more  than  304,000  square  miles. 

The  hydrographic  system  and  rivers  of  Bolivia  fall  into 
three  divisions  :  the  Amazon,  the  Plata,  and  the  Central 
Plateau  or  Titicaca  systems.  The  first  embodies  the  rivers 
which  traverse  the  country,    flowing   north    directly    and 


THE  REPUBLICS  OF  THE  ANDES— BOLIVIA  291 

indirectly  into  the  Madeira,  one  of  the  largest  tributaries  of 
the  Amazon,  with  the  smaller  affluents  of  the  Acre  and  Purus 
in  the  north  ;  a  drainage  area  comprising  more  than  half 
the  surface  of  the  republic.  The  Mamore  and  the  Beni 
unite  to  form  the  Madeira  in  latitude  10°  20"  south.  The 
Mamore  is  600  miles  long,  three-quarters  of  which  length 
is  navigable  from  Chimore,  at  an  elevation  of  925  feet  above 
sea  level,  to  the  rapids,  and  runs  mainly  through  a  vast  level 
plain.  Its  principal  tributary  is  the  Guapay  or  Grande, 
rising  to  the  east  of  lake  Aullagas,  with  a  tortuous,  ob- 
structed course,  700  miles  long.  The  Beni  and  its  great 
affluent,  the  Madre  de  Dios,  are  of  smaller  volume  but 
greater  economic  importance,  as  they  are  navigable,  and  the 
region  drained  is  of  much  fertility  and  dowered  with  great 
forests.  The  railway  improvements  around  the  rapids  of 
the  Madeira-Mamore  are  one  of  the  most  valuable  economic 
developments  in  the  heart  of  South  America,  as  described 
in  the  chapter  on  the  Amazon  valley.  Bolivia  formerly 
possessed  a  fluvial  port  at  Puerto  Acre  on  the  Acre  river,  to 
which  ocean  steamers  could  ascend  from  Para,  but  this  was 
first  disputed  and  then  acquired  by  Brazil.  The  south-east 
drainage  basin  of  Bolivia,  that  of  the  Paraguay  river  of  the 
Plate  system,  is  smaller  and  of  less  economic  importance 
than  the  foregoing.  The  main  stream  is  the  Pilcomayo, 
rising  on  the  east  slopes  of  the  Eastern  Cordillera  near  the 
southern  extremity  of  the  AuUagas  plateau,  and  flowing 
east  and  south-east  through  the  Sierra  region  to  the  Bolivian 
Chaco.  When  the  trade  of  southern  Bolivia  in  the  future 
greatly  develops,  the  opening  of  a  navigable  channel  in  the 
Pilcomayo  may  be  undertaken,  giving  river  communication 
directly  with  Buenos  Ayres  and  the  Atlantic.  Due  to  the 
nearly  level  country  traversed,  the  current  of  this  river  is 
sluggish  and  its  channels  generally  obstructed,  but  little  is 
known  of  its  tributaries  in  the  Chaco.  Another  considerable 
stream  of  the  region,  which  becomes  lost  in  the  great  swamp 
areas  of  the  Bolivian  plain,  is  the  Parapiti,  which  flows  for 
about  150  miles.  The  third  hydrographic  system  is  that  of 
Titicaca  and  the  Desaguadero  river,  elsewhere  described  :  and 
the  boundary  line  of  Bolivia  traverses  lake  Titicaca  midway. 


292  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 

The  conditions  of  climate,  temperature,  rainfall,  and  seis- 
mic and  other  phenomena  in  Bolivia  are  of  extreme  peculi- 
arity and  interest.  Although  the  territory  Hes  within  the 
torrid  zone,  the  temperature  is  not  that  corresponding  to 
such  a  zone  ;  it  varies  according  to  altitude,  latitude,  nature 
of  soil,  direction  of  the  winds  and  distance  to  the  Cordilleras. 
In  the  valleys,  within  a  few  hours,  temperature  will  show  a 
variation  from  54°  to  62°  F.,  while  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
mountains  the  change  is  from  46°  to  59°  F.  At  an  altitude 
of  9,800  feet  the  annual  mean  temperature  is  46°  F., 
while  at  an  elevation  of  14,700  feet  it  is  42°  F.  Sorata  is 
a  town  at  8,900  feet  and  distant  about  six  miles  from  the 
region  of  perpetual  snow  :  it  is  situated  in  a  valley,  and  the 
chmate  is  mild  and  soft,  notwithstanding  its  proximity  to 
the  snow.  Generally  speaking,  the  climate  is  healthful  and 
suitable  for  settlement  by  European  races.  The  mean 
temperature  of  the  lowlands  of  the  Amazon  up  to  an 
altitude  of  2,000  feet  above  sea  level  is  74°,  to  an 
altitude  of  8,000  feet  it  is  66° ;  and  in  the  Central 
Plain,  where  the  altitude  varies  from  10,000  to  12,000 
feet,  it  is  50°.  The  mountains  are  covered  with  perpetual 
snow,  and  on  the  highest  tablelands  there  is  frost  every 
night  in  the  year,  but  the  air  is  dry  and  pure.  At 
Potosi,  which  has  an  elevation  of  about  13,300  feet,  the 
nights  are  always  piercingly  cold,  but  the  rays  of  the  sun 
are  hot  and  powerful  between  2  and  5  p.m.  La  Paz,  at  an 
elevation  of  12,000  feet,  has  a  mean  annual  temperature  of 
50°.  Between  the  altitudes  of  9,500  and  11,000  feet  the 
climate  is  temperate,  and  wheat  and  maize  are  cultivated, 
while  in  the  tracts  of  the  Medio  Yungas,  which  descend  to 
about  5,500  feet,  the  climate  is  such  as  to  permit  of  the 
successful  cultivation  of  both  tropical  and  semi-tropical 
fruits.  This  is  the  zone  of  the  great  cinchona  forests,  whose 
luxuriant  development  is  one  of  the  marked  features  of  the 
flora  of  the  Eastern  Andes.  "  Perpetual  summer,"  as  it 
has  been  termed,  reigns  in  the  lowest  regions,  or  Yungas, 
comprising  the  territory  below  5,000  feet,  producing  all 
tropical  fruits  and  vegetation  ;  and  the  northern  plains  have 
a  hot,  humid  atmosphere,  and  are  covered  with  dense  forests. 


THE  REPUBLICS  OF  THE  ANDES— BOLIVIA  293 

As  described,  the  eastern  region  contains  valuable  grazing- 
lands,  where  the  cattle  industry  may  become  lucrative.  At 
present  large  herds  of  wild  cattle  exist  in  these  great  plains. 

Owing  to  the  peculiar  topographical  formation  of  the 
country,  electric  and  other  phenomena  are  of  constant 
occurrence,  the  principal  zone  where  such  disturbances  take 
place  being  the  Altiplanicie  or  Great  Plateau.  As  the  atmo- 
sphere is  heavily  charged  with  electricity,  both  in  summer  and 
winter,  dry  or  electric  storms  are  of  frequent  occurrence 
both  on  the  plateau  and  in  the  valleys.  Before  the  rainy 
season  sets  in  electrical  accumulation  becomes  marked  on 
the  plateau  region,  its  most  violent  manifestations  taking 
place  toward  the  eastern  section  of  the  tablelands.  An 
electrical  storm  in  these  regions  is  always  a  most  imposing 
spectacle,  as  the  tremendous  force  of  the  wind,  almost  equal 
to  a  hurricane,  and  the  heavy  electrical  accumulation  in  the 
clouds  produce  terrible  atmospheric  explosions  and  violent 
detonations,  while  the  surface  of  the  ground  sparkles  and 
crackles.*  During  this  season,  when  there  have  been  no 
electrical  storms  for  several  days,  large  masses  of  clouds 
hang  over  the  Cordillera,  covering  it  almost  to  its  base, 
rising  or  descending,  according  to  the  variation  of  the  tem- 
perature of  the  lower  atmospheric  strata.  In  such  case  the 
accumulated  clouds  become  luminous  at  night,  shedding  a 
tremulous  bright  halo,  accompanied  by  intermittent  flashes 
of  most  vivid  hght,  until  every  mass  of  clouds  becomes  a 
powerful  centre  of  incessant  detonations,  producing  a  con- 
stant low  rumbling  sound.  Sometimes  this  phenomenon  takes 
place  at  a  single  point,  as  happened  in  1878,  when  the  Illampu 
peak,  near  the  town  of  Sorata,  suddenly  became  brilliantly 
lighted,  while  its  surroundings  were  in  total  darkness.  Be- 
sides these  phenomena,  mirage  is  also  remarkable,  notably 
on  the  Oruro  plains,  toward  the  Atacama  desert  and  in  the 
Upper  Chaco,  especially  during  the  winter. 

BoUvia  has  but  a  small  portion  of  its  territory  lying  within 
the  area  of  volcanic  disturbance.  The  Bolivian  Andes  do 
not  show  any  volcanic  signs,  except  in  the  western  branch 
of  the  Cordillera.     Under  these  conditions  the  central  section 

♦  Foreign  Ofifice  Report. 


294  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 

of  the  country  is  comparatively  free  from  violent  earthquakes, 
the  few  shocks  experienced  being  the  last  vibrations  of  the 
seismic  waves  originating  in  the  Andes  Chain.  Severe 
shocks  were  felt  in  the  central  section  in  August,  1892, 
and  July,  1896.  In  April,  1582,  a  portion  of  the  plateau 
south  of  the  city  of  La  Paz  suddenly  collapsed,  forming  the 
Achocalla  valley.  At  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century 
the  town  of  Ancoanco  (south-east  of  La  Paz)  disappeared 
entirely,  its  site  being  marked  at  present  by  swamps  and 
lagoons.  In  1837  one-half  of  the  QuilliquilU  hills,  near 
La  Paz  collapsed,  and  in  1873  the  land  near  Ancoanco 
again  suffered  a  similar  depression.  The  great  basin  where 
La  Paz  is  situated  is  in  reality  the  result  of  a  geological 
depression,  which  changed  the  Choqueyapu  river.  In  the 
eastern  section  of  the  republic  siesmic  disturbances  are  but 
rarely  felt.  There  is  a  tradition  that  a  town  disappeared 
at  a  place  called  Opaburu,  in  the  department  of  Santa  Cruz. 
Not  very  long  ago  the  town  of  Tacuru,  in  the  same  depart- 
ment, disappeared  under  an  eruption  of  mud,  which  even- 
tually formed  a  lake,  the  waters  of  which  rose  35  feet, 
drowning  the  entire  population  of  the  district.  Thermal 
springs  are  abundant  in  Bolivia,  their  temperature  varying 
greatly.  It  cannot  be  doubted  that  many  elements  of  future 
value  exist  in  these  high,  remote  regions,  little  suspected  at 
present. 

The  construction  of  railways  in  Bolivia,  or  the  intention 
for  such,  has  been  the  most  marked  feature  of  economic 
policy  of  the  republic  :  as  if  Bolivia,  long  shut  in  and  isolated, 
were  resolved  to  free  itself  from  isolation.  Very  extensive 
concessions  have  been  granted  and  agreements  entered  into 
with  foreign  financiers,  and  it  has  been  seriously  questioned 
whether  the  resources  of  the  republic  have  not  been  too 
seriously  compromised  in  the  guarantees  undertaken  for 
the  subsidies.  The  amount  of  these  Uabilities  is  calcu- 
lated at  a  total  sum  of  £390,400  per  annum,*  actual  and 
prospective.  The  construction  and  projected  construction 
under  the  subsidies  include  that  of  the  Bolivia  Railway 
Company,  the    Eastern    railway    of    Bolivia,    the    Cocha- 

*  Foreign  Office  Report  on  Bolivia,  issued  1912. 


THE  REPUBLICS  OF  THE  ANDES— BOLIVIA  295 

bamba-Chimore  railway,  the  Fomento  de  Oriente,  and 
the  La  Paz-Yungas  railway.  Part  of  the  funds  for  the 
first-named  enterprise  was  provided  by  the  sale  of  the  Acre 
territory  to  Brazil,  for  the  sum  of  £2,000,000.  A  great  deal 
of  the  capital  is  of  North  American  origin,  as  is  the  work 
of  construction.  The  lines  will  open  up  the  rich  mineral  and 
agricultural  sections  of  the  republic,  and  in  some  cases  the 
traveller  will  be  conveyed,  within  a  couple  of  hours' 
travel,  from  regions  with  a  temperature  of  40°  to  that  of  70°, 
descending  through  the  striking  landscapes  of  the  eastern 
chain  of  the  Andes. 

Extensive  land  grants  have  been  made  in  connection  with 
these  concessions,  in  addition  to  money  guarantees  ;  grants 
of  so  large  a  nature  that  some  fears  have  been  expressed  as 
to  the  possibility  of  so  large  an  area  of  public  land  not  being 
at  the  government's  disposal.  Bohvian  territory  generally 
is  still  unsurveyed,  and  part  of  it  consists  in  almost  inacces- 
sible bogs,  some  of  which,  however,  come  within  the  grants 
in  some  cases. 

The  total  length  of  railways  in  Bolivia  is  1,100  miles, 
with  about  300  miles  in  construction  and  2,000  miles 
surveyed  or  projected  (1921). 

The  railway  from  Arica  to  La  Paz,  which  has  recently 
been  concluded,  is  a  work  of  considerable  interest.  It  was 
constructed  at  the  cost  of  the  Chilean  government,  under 
agreement  with  Bolivia,  the  contract  having  been  given 
to  an  English  firm  for  the  sum  of  ;^2,750,ooo.  The  fine  is  a 
metre  gauge  with  heavy  gradients,  twenty  miles  of  which 
are  worked  as  a  rack-rail.  The  railway  leaves  the  arid  plains 
of  the  Pacific  coast  and  enters  the  Lluta  valley,  where 
alfalfa,  maize,  melons  and  other  products  of  the  warm  lands 
are  grown  under  irrigation  ;  crosses  the  river  Lluta  several 
times  in  its  course,  and  ascends  the  arid  quehradas  or  ravines 
which  conduct  it  up  the  slopes  of  the  Andes  through  pre- 
cipitous and  broken  territory,  from  which  the  line  emerges 
upon  the  high  Andean  plateau,  at  an  elevation  of  12,500 
feet  above  sea  level.  Thence  along  the  plateau  and  crossing 
profound  gorges,  the  line  reaches  the  picturesque  region  in 
view  of  the  high,  snow-clad  peaks  of  Bolivia,  which  flank 


296  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

the   way   on    either   hand ;     among   them    the    volcanoes, 
Tacora  and  Chupiquina,  whose  sulphur  deposits  form  the 
basis  of  a  business  of  sulphur  export.     Beyond  this  point 
the   summit    of  the  hne  is  reached,  13,976  feet  elevation, 
and  the  rails  pass  along  the  shores  of  the  strange  borax  lake 
of  Laguna  Blanca.     Crossing  the  BoHvia  frontier,  the  line 
descends  to  the  valleys  of  the  streams,  which  run  into  the 
Desaguadero  river.     One  of  these,  the  Mauri,  is    a    large 
stream  running  for  twenty-five  miles  through  a  deep  gorge, 
whose  high,  precipitous  cHffs  and  slopes  are  covered  with 
the  terraces  and  tombs  of  the  bygone  populations  of  the 
Inca  and  pre-Inca  period  ;    clans  which  must   have   been 
numerous.     The  Indian  villages  which  are  then  passed  are 
the  homes  of  the  native  breeders  of  the  llamas  and  alpacas, 
thousands    of    which    exist    upon    the    plains.     The    river 
Desaguadero  is  crossed  by  a  bridge  330  feet  long,  near  the 
old  Indian  suspension  bridge.     The  Desaguadero  river  is  a 
remarkable  stream,  draining  lake  Titicaca  into   its   sister 
lake  Poopo,  the  two  main  bodies  of  water  of  the  Titicaca 
basin,  as  before  described.  The  river  is  as  wide  as  the  Thames 
at  Windsor,  running  with  a  full  flow  of  water,  at  an  elevation 
of  12,000  feet  above  sea  level  and  without  an  outlet  beyond 
the  lake,  for  the  waters  of  the  curious  hydrographic  system 
of  Titicaca  have  no  overflow,  and  are  spent  only  by  evapora- 
tion.    The  railway  passes  the  mining  district  of  Corocoro, 
follows  the  river  Colorado,  crosses  the  flat  plain  of  Viacha 
and  joins  the  Oruro-Antofagasta  line,  and  thence  runs  to 
the  edge  of  the  steep  valley  of  La  Paz.     The  views  upon  the 
route  are  striking,  and  the  magnificent  Cordillera  Blanca 
extends  for  150    miles    in    a    range    of   snow-clad    peaks, 
including  the  high  uplifts  of  Illimani  and  Sorata. 

The  amount  of  British  capital  invested  in  Bolivia  is  over 
£3,500,000,  of  which  about  £2,000,000  is  in  the  tin  mines. 
The  Bolivia  Railway  Company  holds  about  £3,750,000 
for  railway  construction,  but  some  of  the  bonds  are  held  by 
Americans.  The  Antofagasta  railway  represents  about 
£800,000,  and  the  Guaqui-La  Paz  about  £400,000.  Of 
French  capital  about  £4,000,000  is  invested,  mainly  in 
the  zinc  and  silver  mines,  electric  lighting,  railway,  and  other 


THE  REPUBLICS  OF  THE  ANDES— BOLIVIA  297 


works  at  La  Paz,  and  in  loans.  The  total  amount  of  German 
capital  is  about  £1,000,000 ;  and  the  American  about 
£500,000.  The  Bolivian  loan  of  1908  floated  in  New  York 
has  been  acquired  by  the  Bolivian  national  bank.  There 
is  also  a  good  deal  of  Chilean  money  in  the  country.  British 
capital  leads,  and  British  trade  accounts  for  20  per  cent, 
of  the  imports.  It  is  considered,  however,  that  British 
trade  is  losing  ground. 

The  exports  of  Bolivia,  if  not  of  great  amount,  are  interest- 
ing in  character,  and  the  following  list  shews  their  variety 
and  extent  for  the  year  1917. 


Metric  Tons 

Tin 

46,430 

Copper 

37.444 

Bismuth 

535 

Wolframite . . 

3.891 

Lead  ore 

4,118 

Zinc 

427 

Antimony   . . 

23,381 

Bolivianos 

Silver  uncoined 

5.693,640 

Silver  coin  ,  . 

328,270 

Gold  ore 

Gold  coin    . . 

1,250 

Tons 

Rubber 

5.843 

Coca 

363 

Hides 

979 

Quinine 

218 

Wool 

158 

Wool,  alpaca 

127 

Coffee 

34 

Bolivianos 

Leather  goods 

76,900 

The  total  exports  for  1918  were  valued  at  £14,600,000, 
and  imports  £2,750,000 ;  the  exports  exceeding  those  of  any 
year.  To  the  United  Kingdom  went  27,203  tons  of  tin,  and  to 
the  United  States  18,189  tons.  The  main  bulk  of  the  rubber 
went  to  the  last-named,  and  nearly  all  the  copper.  Of  the 
imports,  12  per  cent,  came  from  the  U.K.,  and  33  per  cent, 
from  the  U.S.,  with  24  per  cent,  from  Chile.  The  value  of 
the  exports  for  1919  was  Bs.  144,251,000,  and  the  imports 
Bs.  61,998,000,  The  principal  imports  are  iron,  steel, 
machinery,  textiles  and  coal. 


298  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 

The  financial  standing  of  the  repubhc  is  good,  with 
assets  of  Bs.  67,000,000  and  habihties  64,000,000. 

The  position  occupied  by  BoHvia  in  the  heart  of  South 
America,  although  the  state  is  deprived  of  any  Httoral 
possessions,  is  one  of  considerable  commercial  and  inter- 
national importance,  as  the  country  lies  in  contact  with 
several  of  the  most  progressive  republics  of  the  continent. 
The  extending  network  of  railways,  building  or  projected, 
will  place  the  capital  in  communication  with  its  neigh- 
bours, and  will  lead  to  considerable  commercial  and  social 
advantage;  and  the  backwardness  due  to  isolation  will 
tend  to  disappear.  The  greatest  need  for  Bolivia,  as  for 
the  neighbouring  countries,  is  the  upraising  of  her  lower 
classes,  by  education  and  better  treatment,  both  economic- 
ally and  socially;  and  the  encouraging  of  foreign  capital 
and  immigration  under  such  conditions  as  will  be  conducive 
to  the  real  welfare  of  the  community  as  a  whole.  It  is 
shewn  that  the  natural  resources  of  Bolivia  are  very 
considerable,  and  the  range  of  climatic  and  topographical 
conditions,  which  to-day  seem  almost  an  obstacle  to  develop- 
ment, should  in  the  future  prove  to  be  among  the  most 
valuable  assets  of  the  country.  It  is  manifestly  difficult 
to  bring  about  the  upraising  of  a  large  Indian  population, 
but  much  can  be  made  of  the  native  intelligence  of  these 
people  if  the  task  be  entered  upon  by  the  ruling  classes 
in  a  spirit  of  national  co-operation,  such  as  the  world  is 
everywhere  demanding  from  its  governing  element.  The 
home  industries  of  these  upland  people  should  be  encouraged, 
not  simply  replaced  by  the  establishing  of  great  mills  of  a 
dividend-yielding  nature  to  home  or  domestic  capitahsts. 
The  arts  of  spinning  and  weaving,  inherited  both  from  the 
Incas  and  from  the  Jesuit  teachers  in  early  times,  are  cleverly 
carried  on  in  the  cottages,  the  women  being  specially 
expert,  and  it  would  be  a  grave  economic  error  to  uproot 
the  system.  A  considerable  inducement  for  foreigners  is  in 
the  still  cheap,  unsettled  areas  of  land ;  property  such  as  in 
Argentina  has  long  since  been  taken  up  and  risen  in  value. 


THE  REPUBLICS  OF  THE  ANDES— CHILE   299 


CHAPTER  X 
THE  REPUBLICS  OF  THE  ANDES— CHILE 

The  republic  of  Chile  is  somewhat  smaller  territorially  than 
its  neighbours  of  Peru  and  Bolivia,  but  it  is  far  more  pro- 
gressive as  a  nation  ;  its  people  are  more  energetic  and 
enterprising,  and  they  have  advanced  for  themselves  the 
claim  of  being  the  "  British  "  or  the  "  Americans  "  of  South 
America.  It  might  be  a  matter  for  surprise  that  a  country  of 
so  remarkable  a  form  as  is  the  republic — nearly  3,000  miles 
long,  with  an  average  width  of  about  180  miles  ;  a  ribbon- 
strip  of  territory  compassing  the  tropics  at  one  end  and  the 
Antarctic  at  the  other  ;  from  the  torrid  Capricorn  to  the 
frozen  Horn  ;  washed  by  the  sea  on  the  one  hand  and  shut 
off  from  the  rest  of  the  continent  by  the  Andean  barrier 
on  the  other — could  retain  any  homogenity  as  a  nation. 
But  notwithstanding  its  curious  physical  configuration, 
Chile  is  more  united  perhaps  than  any  other  Latin  American 
country,  none  of  which  are  pervaded  by  a  more  binding 
patriotic  sentiment.  The  national  sentiment  regarding 
the  natural  boundaries  within  which  the  country  lives  and 
strives  to  progress  is  embodied  in  the  national  anthem  of 
Chile:  "That  God-given  bulwark,  the  snowy  Cordillera; 
that  tranquil  sea,  the  highway  of  thy  future  splendour  !  " 
This  sentiment,  however,  cannot  banish  the  difficulties 
which  confront  the  Chilean  republic  in  its  development,  due 
to  the  disposition  of  the  national  territory,  and  grave 
problems  of  its  economy  and  governance  still  await  solution. 

The  area  of  Chile  is  variously  computed  between  293,000 
and  307,700  square  miles ;  and  the  population  numbers  (1922) 
about  4,000,000  people.  From  Arica — the  province  dis- 
puted with  Peru — to  the  southern  extremity  of  Tierra  del 


300  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 

Fuego,  or  Cape  Horn,  the  country  is  2,700  miles  long,  with 
a  greatest  width  of  228  miles  and  a  least  of  sixty  miles. 
To  the  north  is  Peru,  to  the  east  Bolivia,  and  across 
the  snowy  summits,  Argentina  and  its  territory  of 
Patagonia. 

In  respect  of  climate  and  products,  Chile  may  be  described 
in  four  longitudinal  regions.  The  northernmost  of  these 
extends  from  the  Peruvian  boundary  to  Coquimbo  ;  an 
arid  belt  of  territory  intersected  by  some  cultivable  valleys, 
and  containing  the  Sahara-like  deserts  of  Tarapaca,  Ata- 
cama,  and  Antofagasta.  These,  although  desert  as  regards 
vegetation,  contain  the  well-known  nitrate  or  saltpetre 
deposits,  or  "  Salitreras  "  ;  and  the  "  Oficinas  " — or  estab- 
lishments which  produce  and  export  the  nitrate — familiar 
at  least  by  name  to  the  British  shareholder.  The  chief 
ports  forming  the  outlet  to  the  region,  such  as  Iquique, 
Antofagasta,  and  others,  are  generally  more  or  less  open 
roadsteads  on  a  surf-beat  shore,  rather  than  sheltered  havens. 
The  difference  between  the  climate  of  the  western  and 
eastern  coasts  of  South  America  is  nowhere  more  strikingly 
shewn  than  in  the  fact  that  the  arid,  lifeless  region  contained 
between  Iquique  upon  the  tropic  of  Capricorn  and  Anto- 
fagasta ;  a  region  approximately  250  miles  long ;  corre- 
sponds with  the  rich  coffee-producing  state  of  Sao  Paulo 
on  the  Brazilian  side,  and  Rio  de  Janeiro.  The  second 
division  is  that  which  embodies  the  principal  industrial, 
commercial,  and  habitable  region  of  Chile  ;  which  includes 
the  beautiful  and  fertile  vale  of  Chile,  and  the  fine  cities 
of  Santiago,  the  capital  of  the  republic,  and  Valparaiso, 
the  principal  seaport.  The  pastoral  and  agricultural  portion, 
the  Central  region,  follows,  and  south  of  this  lies  the  forest 
section,  extending  almost  as  far  as  the  straits  of  Magellan  : 
a  stretch  of  territory  900  miles  long.  Lastly,  is  the  cold 
zone  of  the  far  southerly  region,  including  Tierra  del  Fuego 
and  the  Chilean  portion  of  Patagonia  ;  terminating  in  the 
Beagle  channel  and  Cape  Horn.  This  last  named  region 
is  b}^  no  means  unproductive,  being  in  part  an  excellent 
field  for  stock-raising,  and  containing  numerous  gold  placer 
mines  ;   both  of  which  sources  of  industry  account  for  the 


THE   REPUBLICS  OF   THE  ANDES— CHILE      301 

comparative   prosperity    enjoyed   by   the    town    of    Punta 
Arenas,  the  most  southerly  port  in  the  world. 

The  desert  interior  of  northern  Chile  is  arid,  appalling 
in  its  aridity,  yet  vast,  spacious,  grand  with  a  certain  lifeless 
beauty  such  as  deserts  possess.  Access  is  gained  to  the 
high  pampas  upon  which  lie  the  great  nitrate  beds  by 
the  short  railway  lines,  which  with  difficulty  climb  the 
cliffs  and  ravines  of  the  coast  from  the  narrow  littoral, 
served  by  the  nitrate  seaports  ;  and  thence  desert  trails 
enter  upon  the  barren  expanses  leading  to  the  mining 
valleys  of  the  Andes,  rising  grey  and  serrated  on  the 
horizon.  From  sunrise  to  sunset  the  wearied  traveller  and 
his  mule  follow  these  trails,  parched  by  the  blazing  sun, 
in  some  cases  unrelieved  by  any  oasis,  in  others  entering 
dry  river  valleys  where  an  occasional  well  is  the  only  water 
supply,  and  a  cluster  of  adobe  huts  and  stunted  trees  offers 
the  only  refreshment  to  the  eyes.  In  times  of  flood,  how- 
ever, these  parched  canyons  are  converted  into  roaring 
torrents  which  sweep  all  before  them,  floods  hundreds  of 
feet  wide,  which  flow  down  for  miles  and  are  lost  in  the 
deserts  below.  Still  higher  the  rocky  base  of  the  Andes  is 
ascended,  leading  to  bleak  plateaux  and  mighty  precipices, 
where  the  condor  and  the  vicufia  are  the  only  inhabitants. 
Nature  in  the  mineral  world  has  staged  strange  scenes, 
and  inserted  treasures  in  strange  places  in  this  region. 
Great  beds  of  gravel  conglomerate,  and  other  formations 
impregnated  with  the  salts  of  copper,  sometimes  in  beautiful 
crystals,  are  exposed,  and  great  lodes  of  copper  and  silver 
ores,  intersecting  hills  worn  smooth  by  glaciers  long  since 
retreated,  bleak  altitudes  where  the  incautious  traveller 
suffers  the  agonies  of  the  soroche,  and  the  puny  dwelling 
of  the  miner  on  the  hill  slopes  is  nightly  shaken  by  the 
temblor,  or  earthquake.  Singular  rock-basins,  holding  lakes 
of  water  covered  by  wiry  mountain  mosses  mark  the  heads 
of  valleys,  carved  out  by  glaciers — "  glacier  meadows  " 
forming  the  drinking  places  of  the  vicufia  and  the  deer  ; 
and  far  beyond  and  above  rise  the  glorious  snowy  cones 
of  Andean  volcanoes,  majestic  against  the  blue  of  the  sky, 
which  mark  the  frontiers  of  Bolivia.     Over  all  reigns  the 


302  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

glamour  of  the  solitude,  the  inscrutable  voice  of  the  desert, 
the  untranslatable  music  of  the  mountains. 

The  central  region  of  Chile  is  of  a  very  different  character. 
It  is  a  land  of  a  temperate  climate  and  rainfall,  with  soft 
pleasing  valleys,  of  pasture  and  cattle,  vineyards  and  fields, 
and  the  lower  mountain  slopes  display  a  smiling  landscape, 
where  the  rocks  are  clothed  with  verdure  and  flowers,  and 
hedgerows  are  gay  with  white  and  red  roses  ;  the  land 
watered  by  the  plentiful  streams  proceeding  from  the  cascades 
of  the  Andes.  Still  further  to  the  south  are  the  fiords  and 
forests  of  the  lower  part  of  the  continent,  a  topography 
similar  in  part  to  that  of  British  Colombia,  in  the  north  of 
the  sister  continent,  where  the  geological  changes  and 
subsidences  of  the  terminii  of  the  great  coast  ranges  have 
had  like  effects.     This  region  is  subject  to  rigorous  climate. 

The  hydrographic  system  of  Chile  is  relatively  simple  : 
the  rivers  all  flowing  to  the  sea  from  the  Cordillera,  except 
in  the  broken  extremity  of  the  continent,  where  lakes  and 
channels  of  intricate  character  exist.  Only  a  few  of  the 
rivers  are  navigable,  their  aggregate  navigable  length  being 
about  700  miles.  The  rivers  in  the  desert  regions  are 
swallowed  up  in  the  sands  in  most  cases,  and  do  not  reach 
the  coast,  but  their  waterless  channels  are  of  interest  as 
shewing  that  different  hydrographic  conditions  formerly 
existed  in  that  vast  region.  One  of  the  main  Chilean  rivers  of 
the  north  is  the  Loa,  which  receives  a  large  volume  of 
water  from  the  Cordillera  and  from  its  upper  courses,  where, 
untainted  by  mineral  salts,  it  supplies  water  which  is  taken 
across  the  desert  in  iron  pipes  to  some  of  the  coast  towns.  The 
Copiapo  river  is  practically  exhausted  for  purposes  of  irriga- 
tion before  reaching  the  sea.  The  waters  of  the  Coquimbo, 
the  Limari,  the  Aconcagua  and  others  are  also  used  for  irriga- 
tion, over  a  considerable  area.  The  rivers  of  the  central 
agricultural  province  are  much  more  valuable,  and  have  been 
of  great  service  in  developing  the  agricultural  regions  of 
Central  Chile,  having  served  as  means  of  transport  where 
there  was  neither  railway  nor  highway.  The  most  important 
is  the  Bio-Bio,  elsewhere  mentioned ;  but  ten  or  more  are 
navigable.     The  riverS  of  the  unsettled  southern  regions 


THE  REPUBLICS  OF  THE  ANDES— CHILE    303 


are  not  all  explored.  In  the  far  south  the  peculiar  network 
of  fiords  and  connecting  channels  covers  an  extensive  area, 
A  peculiar  feature  of  the  extremity  of  Chile  is  the  large 
number  of  glaciers  on  the  western  and  southern  slopes  of  the 
Cordillera,  which  discharge  into  the  deep  estuaries  of  these 
singular  waterways  ;  and  the  formation  of  these  icy  streams 
at  comparatively  low  levels,  with  a  discharge  into  tide  water 
is  a  marked  phenomenon.  Here  the  glaciers  terminate  in  the 
sea. 

The  climate  and  temperature  of  Chile  varies  greatly, 
from  tropical  dry  heat  in  the  north,  to  the  coldness  and 
humidity  of  the  extreme  south  :  and  there  are  also  vertical 
zones  of  temperature,  as  in  Peru :  but  extremes  are  less 
marked  than  under  similar  latitudes  in  the  northern  hemi- 
sphere, due  to  the  greater  juxtaposition  of  the  sea  ',  and  the 
Humbolt  current,  as  in  Peru,  modifies  the  heat  of  the  arid 
areas.  At  Copiapo,  in  lat.  27°,  the  mean  annual  temperature 
is  60°,  and  the  rainfall  one  inch  ;  at  Santiago,  in  lat.  33°,  it  is 
54°,  with  i6|  inches  of  rainfall.  Palms  grow  naturally  as  far 
south  as  37°,  and  the  vegetation  even  south  of  Talca  has  a  sub- 
tropical aspect  ;  and  irrigation  is  necessary,  due  to  the  long 
dry  season.  The  climate  is  healthy  and  agreeable,  and  if  the 
death  rate  is  high,  it  is  due  to  the  mode  of  life  of  the  working 
classes.  At  Valdivia,  lat.  40°,  the  mean  annual  temperature 
is  53°  and  the  annual  rainfall  108  inches — an  equable  chmate 
which  extends  to  Ancud.  In  the  south  the  conditions  become 
extreme. 

The  repubUc  of  Chile  is  divided  into  twenty-three  pro- 
vinces and  one  territory,  whose  capital  towns,  areas,  and 
approximate  populations  in  1922  are : 


^OVINCES 

Sq.  Miles 

Pop. 

Capital 

Pop. 

Tacna 

9.251 

32,000 

Tacna 

12,000 

Tarapaca 

10,131 

126,000 

Iquique 

50,000 

Antofagasta 

46,611 

128,000 

Antofagasta 

37,000 

Atacma 

•       30.729 

86,000 

Copiapo 

14,000 

Coquimbo 

.       13,461 

229,000 

La  Serena 

28,000 

Aconcagua 

5.487 

154,000 

San  Felipe 

12,000 

Valparaiso     . 

1.953 

331,000 

Valparaiso 

206,000 

Santiago 

.         5.665 

562,000 

Santiago 

400,000 

O'Higgins 

2,342 

106,000 

Rancagua 

6,000 

Colchagua 

3.856 

218,000 

San  Fernando 

11,000 

Curico 

2,978 

146,000 

Curico 

20,000 

304 


CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 


Sq.  Miles 

Pop. 

Capital 

Pop. 

3.840 

170,000 

Talca 

43,000 

3.942 

142,000 

Linares 

12,000 

2,475 

167,000 

Cauqucnes 

1 1 ,000 

3.407 

215,000 

Chilian 

48,000 

3.252 

248,000 

Concepcion 

63,000 

2.458 

83,000 

Lebii 

3,000 

5.246 

136,000 

Los  Angeles 

22,000 

2,973 

125,000 

Angol 

9,000 

. .        5.832 

159,000 

Temuco 

ig.ooo 

8,649 

125,000 

Valdivia 

19,000 

••      45.515 

120,000 

Puerto  Montt 

6,000 

.  .        8,593 

112,000 

Ancud 

5,000 

. .      71.127 

20,000 

Punta  Arenas 

12,000 

Provinces 
Talca 
Lin4res 
Maule 
Nuble 
Concepcion 
Arauco 
Bio-Bio 
Malleco 
Cautin 
Valdivia 
Llanquihue 
Chiloe 
Magallanes 

For  purposes  of  industrial  enumeration  in  the  Chilean 
census  the  country  has  been  divided  into  six  sections:  the 
nitrate  with  320,000  population,  mining  with  300,000,  the 
central  with  1,169,000,  the  agricultural  with  1,349,000,  the 
Araucanian  with  602,000,  and  the  Antarctic  with  241,000. 
Othei'wise  the  population  is  distributed  in  a  form  conducive 
to  a  fair  circulation  of  national  life.  Tacna,  in  the  extreme 
north,  has  more  than  12,000  people,  and  Punta  Arenas, 
in  the  extreme  south,  about  12,000.  In  the  nitrate  region 
Iquique  has  50,000  inhabitants,  and  Antofagasta  37,000, 
which  is  almost  the  population  of  their  respective  provinces, 
due  to  the  desert  character  and  the  consequent  concentration 
of  people  in  the  cities.  Valparaiso,  the  chief  seaport  and 
the  commercial  capital  of  the  republic,  has  206,000  inhabi- 
tants, and  there  are  nine  other  towns  in  the  country  with 
more  than  20,000  inhabitants  each.  Concepcion  lies 
equidistant  from  the  northern  and  southern  extremities 
of  the  country,  forming  its  geographical  centre. 

The  government  of  Chile  is  wisely  preserved  as  a  centra- 
lised republic  or  "  unitary  "  system,  in  which  the  system  of 
federation  has  been  avoided.  In  a  country  of  such  vast 
longitudinal  extent,  wherein  political  conditions  would  per- 
force have  to  be  made  to  co-ordinate  with  climatic  zones, 
the  federal  system  as  enjoyed  by  Mexico  or  Brazil  could 
scarcely  be  conducive  to  national  solidarity.  The  powers  of 
governing  are  vested  in  the  three  distinct  branches  of 
Legislative,  Executive,  and  Judicial  ;  as  in  the  other  Latin 


THE   REPUBLICS   OF  THE  ANDES— CHILE      305 

American  republics.  The  executive  consists  in  the  president, 
who  is  chosen  by  electors  who  themselves  are  elected  by  the 
departments,  and  a  cabinet  of  six  ministers  ;  of  interior, 
foreign  affairs,  worship  and  colonisation,  justice  and  public 
instruction,  war  and  marine,  finance,  industry  and  public 
works.  The  minister  of  the  interior  acts  as  vice-president 
when  necessary.  A  council  of  state  of  twelve  members, 
comprising  the  president  and  five  appointed  by  him  and  six 
by  congress,  form  part  of  the  machinery  of  governance. 
The  national  congress,  or  legislative  branch  of  government, 
contains  a  senate  of  thirty-two  members  and  a  chamber  of 
ninety-four  deputies.  The  senators  are  elected  by  pro- 
vinces, with  office  for  six  years,  and  one  half  retiring  every 
three  years  ;  and  the  deputies  by  proportional  representa- 
tion of  one  for  each  30,000  of  the  departmental  population. 
As  in  the  usual  Latin  American  constitution,  it  is  set  forth 
that  the  sovereignty  resides  in  the  nation,  but  suffrage  is 
confined  to  married  citizens  over  twenty-one  and  unmarried 
over  twenty-five,  who  are  literate,  owners  of  real  estate 
or  invested  capital,  of  a  stated  amount ;  and  as  70 
per  cent,  of  the  population  is  enumerated  as  illiterate, 
and  the  greater  part  landless  and  poor  or  earning  a  very 
low  wage,  the  sovereignty  of  the  people  is  held  by  a  small 
minority — conditions  such  as  are  general  in  Latin  America 
and  not  peculiar  to  Chile.  The  judicial  power  is  indepen- 
dent of  the  executive,  consisting  in  a  supreme  court  of  justice 
of  seven  members  in  the  capital,  six  courts  of  appeal  in  the 
provinces,  and  tribunals  of  first  instance  in  the  departments, 
with  justices  of  the  peace  in  the  districts.  The  jury  system 
does  not  exist.  The  higher  judges  are  appointed  by  the 
executive.  The  civil  and  commercial  law  are  based  upon  the 
French  code.  The  twenty-three  provinces  and  territory  are 
sub-divided  for  the  above  methods  o*f  administration  into 
75  departments,  855  sub-delegations,  and  3,068  districts. 

The  Chilean  people  are  composed  of  the  three  usual 
South  American  classes  of  whites :  of  earlier  Spanish  origin ; 
mestizos,  formed  of  the  alliance  of  the  early  settlers  with  the 
aborigines;  and  the  Indians.  The  mestizos  form  the  bulk 
of  the  population,  constituting  60  per  cent,  of  the  total, 


3o6  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

and  the  people  of  white  extraction  30  to  40  per  cent.  The 
Indians  of  pure  race  are  numbered  at  about  100,000.  The 
Chileans  lay  claim  to  having  but  a  small  admixture  of 
aboriginal  blood,  but  whilst  there  is  undoubtedly  a  far 
larger  proportion  of  people  of  European  extraction  in  Chile 
than  in  any  other  Latin  American  republic  except  Argentina, 
the  mestizos  nevertheless  are  the  principal  basis  of  the 
population.  The  Indians  are  mainly  concentrated  in  the 
eastern  forest  region,  and  are  principally  the  remains  of 
the  brave  and  independent  Araucanians  who  successfully 
resisted  both  the  Inca  and  the  Spanish  advance,  and  the 
element  they  provided  in  the  formation  of  Chilean  nationahty 
has  been  of  the  utmost  value.  Like  the  Indians  of  the 
Andes  of  Peru  and  Bolivia,  their  numbers  are  now  being 
steadily  reduced  by  drunkenness,  the  effect  of  the  white 
man's  alcohol,  and  by  disease  brought  about  by  the  poverty- 
stricken  and  unsanitary  condition  of  their  life.  The  principal 
part  of  the  population  of  Chile,  about  73  per  cent,  of  the 
inhabitants,  is  concentrated  in  the  fertile  provinces  which 
form  the  vale  of  Chile. 

The  ruling  and  educated  class  of  Chileans,  including  the 
professional  and  landed  element  and  those  engaged  in 
industrial  and  commercial  enterprise,  are  of  energetic  and 
generally  shrewd  character.  In  their  business  operations 
they  are  more  advanced  than  their  neighbours  of  the  other 
Andean  republics,  and  pride  themselves,  not  unjustifiably, 
on  their  commercial  methods  ;  and  joint-stock  enterprise 
and  company  formation  has  a  considerable  vogue  in 
Childean  industrial  affairs.  The  educated  Chileans  possess 
pleasing  characteristics  of  hospitality  and  politeness,  which 
almost  disarm  criticism  of  their  national  defects,  and 
they  have  a  marked  admiration  for  those  virile  qualities 
of  the  Anglo-Saxon  race,  which  to  some  extent  they  have 
adopted  in  their  business  pursuits  and  in  certain  national 
institutions.  Foremost  among  these  is  the  British-built 
navy,  whose  regimen  is  modelled  upon  that  of  England, 
with  certain  well-known  traditions  connecting  it  therewdth. 
The  women  of  Chile  are  handsome  and  vivacious,  and  display 
to   a  marked  extent   the  addiction   to   society   functions, 


THE   REPUBLICS   OF   THE  ANDES— CHILE      307 

which  does  not,  however,  minimise  the  love  of  home  which 
characterises  the  women  of  Latin  America  generally.  The 
Chilean  is  to  a  certain  extent  marked  out  from  the  neighbour- 
ing people  of  South  America  by  a  somewhat  brusque  mode 
of  address,  and  harsher  rendering  of  the  Spanish  language, 
yet  there  is  a  strong  poetic  temperament  beneath  it.  Not 
less  hospitable  than  the  Latin  American  people  generally, 
the  Chileans  have  less  of  the  somewhat  superficial  urbanity 
which  is  the  marked  characteristic  of  the  Spanish  American 
people.  Taken  as  a  whole,  the  Chileans  must  be  regarded  as 
one  of  the  dominating  personalities  of  the  community  of 
South  American  nations. 

Whilst  the  upper  and  educated  class  and  the  land-holding 
ohgarchies  which  govern  the  republic  are  well  advanced  in 
comfort  and  civilisation,  they  form  but  a  small  minority, 
and  the  bulk  of  the  population  of  Chile,  like  that  of  the  other 
Andean  republics,  is  poor  and  ignorant  in  the  extreme  ;  and 
the  workers  as  a  class,  being  landless,  badly  paid,  illiterate, 
arc  without  voice  in  the  government  of  the  country.  One 
of  the  principal  causes  of  this  backward  condition  is  that 
of  land  tenure.  The  upper  classes  are  the  descendants 
principally  of  the  early  Spanish  settlers  who,  when  the  re- 
public was  founded,  secured  to  themselves  entire  political 
control  and  the  possession  of  the  land  ;  the  workers  being 
kept  in  a  state  of  almost  hopeless  servitude.  Since  then  a 
species  of  oligarchy  composed  of  the  rich  land-owning 
class  rules  the  country,  and  the  laws  formed  in  the  interests 
of  this  class  and  against  the  lower  class  have  suffered  com- 
paratively little  modification  ;  although  some  improvement 
in  education  and  the  establishment  of  manufacturing 
industries,  which  have  been  fostered  under  a  high  tariff, 
have  benefited  the  common  people  to  some  extent.  Yet 
were  it  not  that  the  Chilean  peons  and  rotos  came  of  an 
extremely  hardy  stock,  the  deprivation  of  almost  all  means 
of  advancement  in  the  past,  and  the  low  wages  paid,  would 
have  rendered  them  much  less  numerous  than  at  the  present 
time.  Their  qualities  of  patience  and  endurance  under 
poverty  and  petty  oppression,  like  those  of  their  neighbours, 
the  Peruvian  Cholos,  are  worthy  of  acknowledgment,  and 


3o8  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

of  a  better  lot  in  life.  The  chief  defects  of  this  class  are 
their  drunkenness  and  the  sanguinary  spirit  they  display 
in  private  or  national  quarrels.  Murder  is  lightly  regarded  ; 
the  knife  is  the  most  ready  argument  among  them,  and  the 
butchery  of  fallen  enemies  on  the  field  of  battle  has  been 
one  of  the  greatest  reproaches  against  their  remarkable 
fighting  qualities.    Infant  mortality  is  very  heavy. 

But  the  Chilean  rotos,  the  men  of  the  mining  and  agri- 
cultural and  working  class  generally,  have  some  excellent 
qualities.  As  a  miner  the  roto  has  few  equals  in  the  world, 
with  his  tenacity  and  absence  of  fear,  his  resolution  to  win  in 
whatever  he  does,  his  love  of  gain  in  which  he  does  not  spare 
his  body,  his  powers,  or  his  pocket,  and  his  primitive  sense 
of  honour — the  honour  of  the  bandit  at  times  it  may  be. 
He  is  a  good  friend  and  a  terrific  enemy,  fearing  nothing, 
and  stopping  at  nothing,  bearing  in  his  veins  the  blood  and 
valour  of  his  indomitable  Araucanian  ancestors,  the  most 
vigorous  and  tenacious  indigenous  race  of  the  whole 
western  hemisphere— which  kept  back  the  redoubtable 
Incas  and  fought  long  with  the  Christians.  Further- 
more Chile  has  enjoyed  a  clean  record,  and  has  possessed 
a  beneficial  factor  from  the  absence  of  negro  slavery,  with 
very  small  exceptions,  such  as  in  colonial  times  degraded  a 
part  of  the  population  of  Brazil,  Peru,  and  other  countries, 
and  brought  about  an  undesirable  racial  conglomeration. 

The  character  of  the  Chilean  people  was  well  shewn  in 
the  war  of  the  Pacific,  waged  against  Peru  and  Bolivia. 
Thousands  of  miles  from  their  base,  the  Chileans  neverthe- 
less manned  their  fleets,  fought  terrible  sea  battles,  and 
swarmed  over  Peru,  took  from  her  the  nitrate  provinces, 
deprived  Bolivia  of  her  only  seaboard  of  Antofagasta, 
ravaged  the  coast  of  Peru,  attacked  and  overcame  the  first, 
second,  and  third  lines  of  defence  of  Lima — heroically 
defended  by  Peruvians,  young  and  old,  rich  and  poor — 
and  kept  the  Chilean  flag  flying  over  the  Peruvian  capital 
for  several  years  ;  lastly  obtaining  as  their  recompense  what 
has  proved  to  be  the  most  valuable  indemnity  ever  paid  one 
nation  by  another,  in  the  handing  over  the  nitrate  provinces. 

The  reproach  of  backwardness  in  literacy  the  Chileans 


THE   REPUBLICS   OF  THE  ANDES— CHILE      309 

are  now  making  endeavours  to  cast  off.  The  old  conserva- 
tive regimen  is  giving  place  to  the  increasing  influence  of 
more  liberal  ideas,  even  if  the  advance  in  popular  education 
is  slow.  The  increase  in  urban  employment,  due  to  the 
expansion  of  industry,  is  also  helping  to  stimulate  a  desire 
for  education  among  the  lower  classes,  and  this  will  doubtless 
extend  to  the  small  towns  and  rural  communities.  Educa- 
tion is  largely  under  the  control  of  the  government,  and  from 
the  university  down  to  the  smallest  and  most  distant 
primary  school,  educational  establishments  are  under  the 
direction  of  the  minister  of  justice  and  public  works.  The 
university  buildings  of  Santiago  form  a  prominent  archi- 
tectural feature  of  the  capital.  The  Instituto  Nacional  is 
the  principal  secondary  school  of  the  country.  There  is  a 
total  of  about  2,500  primary  schools,  equal  to  nearly  one 
per  1,500  of  the  population,  of  which  1,700  exist  in  rural 
districts  and  the  remainder  in  the  towns.  Part  of  the  teach- 
ing is  devoted  to  instruction  in  manual  labour,  and  to 
education  in  civic  matters,  and  in  every  grade  some  hours 
per  week  are  devoted  to  religious  instruction.  Representa- 
tives of  the  church  sit  on  the  central  committee  for  educa- 
tion, which  works  in  harmony  with  the  ecclesiastical 
authorities,  and  as  there  is  little  or  no  avowed  dissent  from 
the  national  Roman  Catholic  religion,  questions  of  denomina- 
tional character  are  not  aroused.  Sixteen  training  colleges 
are  maintained  by  the  state  throughout  the  republic,  six 
for  men  and  ten  for  women  :  the  course  lasting  five  years, 
with  training,  board,  lodgings,  and  books  free  of  cost,  carry- 
ing, however,  the  obligation  of  state  service  as  primary 
teachers  for  a  minimum  period  of  seven  years.  In  the  men's 
training  colleges  regular  instruction  is  given  in  lessons  on 
"  Religion  and  Morality,"  and  in  the  women's  on  "  Religion." 
Secondary  education  is  carried  on  in  establishments  or 
lycees  in  the  chief  towns,  to  the  number  of  seventy-five, 
about  equally  divided  between  boys  and  girls,  those  for 
boys  being  under  the  direction  of  the  university  of  Santiago, 
and  those  for  girls  directly  administered  by  the  state. 
There  are  five  classes,  or  courses,  in  these  institutions,  the 
first  of  six  years,  and  the  second  of  three  years,  from  which 


310  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

matriculation  for  the  university  is  allowable  ;  and  thus  a 
path  is  open  from  state  education  to  the  university  career. 
University  teaching  is  free,  and  the  degree  of  "  doctor  "  does 
not  exist  in  Chile,  being  considered  undemocratic.  As 
regards  technical  education,  institutions  for  such  are  also 
provided  by  the  state.  There  are  also  six  agricultural  colleges, 
ten  commercial  schools,  three  mining  schools,  twenty-nine 
technical  colleges  for  women,  where  they  are  taught  all  kinds 
of  practical  women's  work  ;  also  a  school  of  art  and  a 
conservatoire  of  music  and  the  drama.  English  is  an 
obligatory  study  in  most  of  the  men's  educational  establish- 
ments. The  English  and  German  schools  are  also  a  feature 
of  education  in  Chile. 

It  is  to  be  observed  that  the  Chileans,  although  one  of 
the  most  virile  and  military  of  the  Latin  American  people, 
are  at  the  same  time  among  the  most  religious.  The 
Chilean  clergy  are  generally  drawn  from  the  higher  classes, 
and  are  of  better  intellectual  and  social  standing  than  in 
the  Latin  American  states  generally.  The  Roman  Catholic 
religion  is  by  the  constitution  the  religion  of  the  state,  and 
the  church,  although  wealthy,  derives  a  large  part  of  its 
income  from  a  subsidy  included  in  the  national  budget  ; 
with  a  Minister  of  Worship  as  supervening  authority.  The 
higher  appointments  of  the  church  are  also  subject  to  inter- 
vention by  the  Executive.  The  privilege  of  religious 
worship  is  accorded  to  other  faiths  by  a  law  of  1865,  with 
civil  marriage  and  the  secularisation  of  cemeteries.  Santiago 
is  the  see  of  an  archbishop,  and  there  are  three  bishops. 
The  Chilean  worker  and  miner  is  superstitious,  like  all  his 
brethren  of  Latin  America — superstition  largely  mixed  with 
reHgion.  A  tangible  evidence  of  religious  ideas  lies  in  the 
great  bronze  statue  of  El  Cristo  de  los  Andes,  which  was 
placed  upon  the  snowy  pass  of  the  Cordillera  at  the  time  of 
dehmiting  the  Chilean- Argentine  frontiers ;  as  an  evidence  of 
the  value  of  arbitration,  whose  successful  consummation 
avoided  what  doubtless  would  have  been  a  hard  and  bloody 
struggle  between  the  two  countries. 

Santiago,  the  capital  of  Chile,  is  a  name  far  less  familiar 
to  the  foreigner  than  is  that  of  Valparaiso,  its  seaport  ;   due 


THE   REPUBLICS   OF   THE  ANDES— CHILE      311 

largely  to  its  position  inland.  It  is  a  city  of  stately  and 
attractive  appearance,  well  laid  out,  upon  a  fertile  plain 
overlooked  by  the  snow-clad  peaks  of  the  Cordillera  ; 
with  broad,  regular  streets,  and  handsome  public  buildings, 
plazas  and  alamedas  :  closed  in  from  the  sea  by  a  low  range 
of  mountains  paralleling  the  coast,  forming  part  of  the 
beautiful  vale  of  Chile,  and  is  reached  from  Valparaiso  by 
the  railway  which  traverses  the  rocky  and  barren  coast  belt. 
The  railway,  which  is  115  miles  long,  enters  the  city  through 
one  of  the  finest  avenues  of  any  South  American  capital,  the 
broad  Alameda,  planted  with  giant  poplars  and  lined  with 
imposing  buildings,  three  miles  in  length,  adorned  with 
flower  gardens,  fountains  and  sculptures,  among  which  are 
grandiose  equestrian  statues  of  San  Martin  and  O'Higgins, 
the  two  famous  Chilean  heroes  and  Hberators.  From 
the  centre  of  the  city  rises  the  rocky  hill  or  crag  of  Santa 
Lucia,  formerly  a  citadel,  but  now  laid  out  as  a  great 
pleasaunce,  with  theatres,  restaurants  and  monuments, 
and  winding  walks  which  lead  to  points  where  picturesque 
views  of  the  surroundings  are  obtained.  Seen  from  this 
high  point,  300  feet  above  the  valley,  the  city  unfolds  on 
both  sides  of  the  Mapocho  river,  with  parks  and  squares 
which  relieve  the  sameness  of  the  geometrical  plan  of  its 
construction,  and  the  great  Alameda  bisects  the  whole. 
The  Mapocho  river,  in  earlier  time  the  agent  of  destructive 
floods,  is  retained  by  solid  embankments  and  crossed  by 
handsome  bridges.  Among  the  plazas  enclosed  by  the 
parallelograms  formed  by  the  straight  streets  and  those 
which  cross  them — in  almost  too  great  a  uniformity — are 
the  Plaza  de  Independencia  and  the  Campo  de  Marte.  Upon 
the  former  faces  the  cathedral,  which,  however,  is  not  of 
striking  exterior  effect,  although  the  interior  decorations 
are  good.  The  original  building,  erected  by  Valdivia  and 
rebuilt  by  Mendoza,  was  destroyed  by  an  earthquake 
in  1647  and  rebuilt  in  1748,  and  is  350  feet  long,  and  92 
feet  wide.  Among  the  most  noteworthy  buildings  of  the 
city  is  the  Capitol,  with  its  rows  of  massive  columns,  sur- 
rounded with  beautiful  gardens,  the  Moneda,  or  executive 
residence,  the  municipal  Palacio,  the  courts  of  justice,  the 


312  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

university.  The  national  library,  with  more  than  100,000 
books,  the  school  of  arts  and  trades,  or  Lyceo,  the  national 
conservatory  of  music,  the  observatory,  national  institute, 
mint,  and  the  theatres  are  others  of  the  principal  edifices 
which  form  the  handsome  grouping  of  the  national  capital. 
The  water-supply  of  Santiago  is  obtained  by  an  aqueduct 
five  miles  long,  and  the  streets  are  paved  with  asphalt  and 
traversed  by  tramway  lines.  A  small  plaza  and  column 
marks  the  spot  where  in  1868  the  Jesuits'  church  was  burned 
down,  with  2,000  victims,  chiefly  women.  The  city  has 
been  the  scene  of  many  earthquake  shocks  and  of  frequent 
revolutionary  disorders.  The  present  population  is  over 
400,000  inhabitants.  Santiago  stands  at  an  elevation  of 
more  than  1,800  feet  above  sea  level,  and  to  the  east  and 
north-east  rise  the  serrated  Andes,  snow-clad  and  scarred, 
appearing  as  if  almost  close  beyond,  their  crests  gaining  an 
altitude  of  17,000  feet.  The  climate  is  temperate  and 
healthy,  with  a  moderate  rainfall,  and  its  latitude,  33°  26' 
south,  and  elevation  insures  freedom  from  the  diseases  of 
the  more  northern  coast  towns.  The  Chileans  take  great 
pride  in  their  handsome  capital,  which  has  never  yet  been 
subjected  to  a  siege. 

Valparaiso  is  the  most  important  centre  of  commercial 
activity  on  the  whole  Pacific  coast  of  South  America,  rank- 
ing next  as  a  seaport  to  San  Francisco,  the  western  capital 
of  the  United  States.  It  lies  upon  a  broad,  open,  semi- 
circular bay,  on  the  slope  of  a  spur  of  barren  hills  forming  a 
rocky  peninsula,  whose  promontory  affords  good  shelter 
from  the  westerly  and  southerly  storms.  But  from  the 
north  the  bay  is  open  to  the  gales  which  at  times  work 
serious  damage  upon  the  shipping  in  the  harbour,  and 
improvements  at  heavy  cost  are  being  carried  out  to  remedy 
this  condition,  such  as  will  make  of  the  port  a  more  desirable 
haven.  The  harbour  suffers  from  the  disadvantage  of  many 
other  South  American  harbours,  such  as  Montevideo  and 
Brazilian  and  Peruvian  ports,  in  the  relative  shallowness  of 
the  bay,  which  obliges  vessels  of  large  draught  to  anchor 
off  shore  and  to  discharge  by  means  of  boats  and  lighters. 
The  town  is  in  a  singular  situation,  topographically  composed 


i^m: 


■fi  -'» i>  ■ 


THE   REPUBLICS   OF  THE   ANDES— CHILE      313 

of  a  number  of  hills  separated  by  deep  ravines,  spanned  by 
numerous  bridges,  and  a  narrow  strip  of  level  ground  on  the 
sea  edge,  less  than  half  a  mile  wide.  From  the  lower  to  the 
upper  portion  of  the  town  a  number  of  lifts,  stairways,  and 
winding  roads  ascend,  giving  access  to  the  higher  districts, 
1,000  or  more  feet  above  the  shore.  The  poetical  name  of 
Valparaiso— the  Valley  of  Paradise — was  bestowed  upon 
the  port  by  the  Spaniard  Saavedra,  who  founded  it  in  1536  ; 
but  it  was  a  misnomer,  which  the  barren  hills  and  unpleasing 
odours  of  the  foreshore  and  narrow  streets  sufficiently 
attest.  The  town  is,  nevertheless,  not  without  some  pleasing 
elements,  and  approached  from  the  sea  is  of  an  imposing 
character,  its  white  buildings  standing  out  upon  the  shore, 
and  climbing  the  hills  in  picturesque  form,  backed  by  the 
mountains.  But  its  principal  claim  to  greatness  is  in 
the  commercial  importance  as  a  great  shipping  terminus 
and  famous  seaport.  Valparaiso  was  captured  in  1578  by 
Drake,  and  in  1596  by  Hawkins,  and  in  1600  was  sacked  by 
the  Dutchman  van  Noort.  In  1866  it  was  bombarded 
by  the  Spanish  fleet  and  laid  in  ruins,  and  in  1891  was  sacked 
by  the  Chileans  themselves  after  the  repulse  of  Balmaceda. 
It  suffered  greatly  from  earthquakes  in  1730,  1822,  1839, 
and  1873,  and  in  1908  it  was  almost  totally  destroyed  by  an 
earthquake  :  its  public  edifices,  private  residences,  water, 
lighting  and  transport  services  all  were  wrecked,  and  the 
population  obliged  to  flee  to  the  plateau  above.  But  with 
characteristic  Chilean  energy  the  town  has  risen  from  its 
ashes,  with  improved  conditions  architecturally.  The  new 
port  works  now  under  construction  by  a  British  firm,  com- 
prising breakwaters,  wharves,  railways,  custom  house, 
electric  cranes  and  other  matters,  are  being  executed  at  a 
cost  of  33,000,000  Chilean  dollars. 

To  the  north  of  Valparaiso  is  the  handsome  seaside  resort 
of  Vifia  del  Mar,  a  place  of  gardens,  hotels,  casinos,  concerts, 
and  restaurants,  and  other  attributes  of  holiday  life  ;  and 
Chilean  society  crowds  thither,  the  men  in  clothes  of  Londcm 
fashion,  and  the  women  in  Paris  modes,  graceful  and 
handsome,  with  the  peculiar  attractiveness  of  the  women  of 
the  western  South  American  coast  towns.     Aquatic  sports, 


314  CENTRAL   AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

bathing,  boating,  piers,  bands,  and  the  usual  elements  of 
seaside  resorts  indicate  that  the  pleasures  of  the  Chilean 
people  are  upon  lines  such  as  are  common  in  Britain, 
California,  or  elsewhere. 

The  mountains  are  nearer  the  sea  in  this  part  of  Chile  than 
in  the  northern  region  and  in  Peru,  and  the  peaks  of  the 
snowy  Cordillera  are  seen  from  the  coast.  The  loftiest  peak, 
Aconcagua,  the  highest  mountain  in  the  New  World,  reaching 
23,097  feet  above  sea  level,  is  finely  beheld  from  the  Chilean 
Trans-Andean  Railway  beyond  Santiago. 

The  principal  seat  of  life  and  agriculture  in  Chile,  and  the 
really  typical  part  of  the  civilisation  of  the  republic,  is  in  the 
\^ale  of  Chile,  the  broad  valley  or  plain  extending  from  the 
Aconcagua  river  slightly  to  the  north  of  Santiago,  the  capital, 
to  the  gulf  of  Ancud,  more  than  600  miles  long  and  60 
broad,  forming  in  the  main  a  fertile  region  of  alluvial  soil, 
watered  by  numerous  streams  which  descend  from  the 
Cordillera.  This  valley  is  the  richest  and  most  thickly 
populated  part  of  the  republic,  and  embodies  an  agricultural 
and  pastoral  region  of  great  productiveness.  The  rainfall 
is  moderate,  being  heaviest  in  the  south,  where  the  plain 
is  covered  with  forest.  This  great  vale  of  Chile  lies  between 
the  maritime  Cordillera  and  the  Andes,  and  extends  approxi- 
mately from  latitude  32°  to  42°  south. 

The  railway  line  running  southward  from  Santiago  along 
the  valley  reaches  Valdivia,  some  400  miles  long,  with  branch 
lines  to  various  points  upon  the  coast.  This  great  artery 
of  travel  is  state  owned.  The  port  of  Talcahuano  is  the 
largest  and  best  protected  port  on  the  Pacific  coast  of  South 
America,  lying  about  mid-way  between  Santiago  and  Val- 
divia and  connected  therewith  by  the  railway.  It  is  the 
principal  naval  station  of  Chile,  and  has  a  large  dry  dock  for 
the  repair  of  vessels  ;  and  a  new  naval  dry  dock  to  accom- 
modate the  largest  type  of  warship  is  being  built,  the  only 
one  upon  the  Pacific  coast.  Concepcion  lies  seven  miles 
from  the  port  on  the  Bio-Bio  river,  the  centre  of  a  rich 
agricultural  region,  and  the  town  has  a  population  of  some 
63,000  people.  Wheat,  wine,  wool,  cattle,  timber,  and  coal 
are   produced,    and    it   possesses  fiour  mills,  carriage  and 


THE   REPUBLICS   OF  THE  ANDES— CHILE      315 

furniture  factories,  and  breweries.  The  city  is  well  laid  out 
on  level  ground,  with  broad  streets  and  squares,  a  cathedral 
and  fine  churches,  and  is  an  episcopal  see.  Above,  the  river 
is  navigable  for  100  miles  and  carries  considerable  traffic, 
but  at  the  mouth  is  somewhat  obstructed.  Another  line 
of  railway  extends  to  the  south  through  the  coal-fields, 
crossing  the  river  by  a  steel  viaduct  6,000  feet  long.  Con- 
cepcion  has  many  times  been  destroyed  by  earthquakes. 
It  was  burned  twice  in  early  times  by  the  Araucanians  in 
their  long  struggle  against  the  Spaniards. 

Valdivia  is  a  town  of  19,000  inhabitants  of  a  pioneer 
character,  to  a  large  extent  German,  surrounded  by  flourish- 
ing settlements  of  the  enterprising  German  colonists. 
The  main  industries  are  tanneries,  dried  meat  factories, 
breweries  and  distilleries,  and  a  shipyard  for  the  building  of 
wooden  vessels  and  small  steel  steamers.  Important  sources 
of  raw  material  around  Valdivia  and  the  investment  of 
capital  have  been  the  factors,  added  to  German  immigration, 
which  have  developed  the  town.  Grain,  hides;  and  fine 
timber  from  the  forests  are  among  the  sources  of  industr}^ 
which  are  characteristic  of  the  temperate  regions.  German 
colonists  were  first  brought  in  by  the  state,  and  between  1850 
and  1870,  and  since  that  time,  private  settlers  have  arrived 
is  such  numbers  that  German  is  the  principal  language  spoken, 
and  beer  from  the  German  breweries  at  Valdivia  finds  a 
market  all  over  the  republic.  The  railway  journey  to 
Santiago  occupies  about  twenty-two  hours.  Corral,  the 
seat  of  some  extensive  ironworks,  is  a  short  distance  away 
by  steamboat,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river. 

The  port  of  Coquimbo  lies  200  miles  north  of  Valparaiso, 
and  has  one  of  the  best  harbours  on  the  coast.  It  is  the 
outlet  for  a  hinterland  of  mixed  mining  and  agricultural 
industries,  and  famous  locally  for  its  wine.  One  of  the 
oldest  Spanish  towns,  La  Serena,  lies  five  miles  distant  by 
railway,  with  a  fine  cathedral  and  other  buildings  such  as 
the  Spanish  regimen  bequeathed,  and  an  attractive  plaza 
where  local  society  congregates,  after  the  Latin  American 
fashion,  at  evening  concerts — matters  which  impart  an 
atmosphere  of  distinction  and  agreeable  social  life  to  the  place. 


3i6  CENTRAL   AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

Agriculture  in  Chile  possesses  certain  characteristics  of 
its  own.  The  general  aspect  of  the  lands  under  cultivation 
differs  from  that  of  closely  civilised  parts  of  the  world,  as  there 
are  few  small  areas  of  ground  where  agricultural  products  of 
various  kinds  are  cultivated,  nor  does  there  exist  a  success- 
sion  of  woods  and  valleys  with  isolated  patches  of  green, 
nor  even  farms  to  mark  the  site  of  an  estate.  In  the  agri- 
cultural region  of  Chile,  as  in  the  western  portion  of  the 
United  States,  there  are  rolling  plains,  covered  with  wheat 
and  corn,  stretching  away  to  the  horizon,  and  in  other 
districts  immense  pasture  lands  devoted  to  the  raising  of 
cattle.  These  lands,  whether  employed  for  grazing  or  for 
agriculture,  are  generally  crossed  by  a  network  of  irrigating 
canals.  The  system  of  cultivation,  on  a  large  scale,  by  the 
landowner  himself,  the  raising  of  cattle  in  the  open  country, 
and  artificial  irrigation  are  the  bases  of  Chilean  agriculture. 
The  great  extension  of  the  estates  or  country  properties 
necessarily  requires  the  employment  of  considerable  capital, 
a  large  stock  of  cattle,  and  a  full  complement  of  machinery, 
buildings,  and  farm  hands.  The  method  of  cattle-breeding 
within  walled  enclosures,  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  character 
of  the  water  used  for  irrigation  on  the  other,  containing  a 
large  percentage  of  lime,  have  so  far  rendered  the  use  of 
fertilisers  unnecessary,  while  the  number  of  farm  hands  or 
field  labourers  employed  has  been  comparatively  small  in 
proportion  to  the  area  under  cultivation.  Thus,  Chile  is 
not  a  land  of  small  cultivation,  as  is  the  case  in  the  highlands 
of  Peru  and  Bolivia.  The  discarding  of  old  methods  in  the 
cultivation  of  the  soil,  and  introducing  modem  ideas  and 
implements,  has  progressed  during  the  last  few  years,  but 
conservative  ideas  are  hard  to  conquer,  even  in  the  face  of 
modern  progress,  and  although  Chilean  agriculturists  are 
progressive  and  often  adopt  advanced  methods  of  land 
culture,  nevertheless  primitive  methods  are  still  employed 
on  many  haciendas.  The  government,  aided  by  the  National 
Society  of  Agriculture,  endeavour  to  diffuse  information 
regarding  modern  methods  of  cultivation  and  machinery,  and 
maintain  agricultural  schools  and  practical  experimental 
stations  in  various  parts  of  the  country,  and  the  society 


THE   REPUBLICS   OF  THE   ANDES— CHILE      317 

holds  expositions  from  time  to  time,  to  which  the  govern- 
ment contribute.  The  wheat  yield  is  above  25,000,000 
bushels  annually.  Recent  estimates  place  the  number  of 
farms  in  Chile  at  about  50,000,  with  an  assessed  valuation 
of  £75,000,000. 

Agricultural  industries  occupy  about  half  the  population 
of  Chile  ;  the  chief  products  being  cereals,  alfalfa,  vines  and 
fruits.  Cattle-raising  and  its  products  are  mainly  absorbed 
by  the  home  market.  Wheat,  although  grown  also  in  the 
northern  part  of  the  country,  yields  its  best  result  under  the 
greater  rainfall  of  the  south,  with  a  lower  temperature  ; 
and  somewhat  more  than  a  million  acres  have  been 
brought  under  cultivation  altogether.  The  principal  wheat 
export  is  to  Great  Britain  ;  the  purchases  of  the  neighbour- 
ing republics  on  the  Pacific  coast,  which  formerly  were 
supplied  by  Chile,  having  fallen  off  due  to  their  own  pro- 
duction. The  average  yield  of  Chilean  wheat  is  given  as 
seventeen  bushels  to  the  acre,  which  is  consequently  superior 
to  that  of  Argentina.  One  of  the  principal  articles  of  diet 
among  the  agricultural  population  is  maize,  from  which 
also  the  national  drink,  the  chicha,  or  maize  beer,  similar 
to  that  of  Peru,  is  made.  The  Chilean  roto,  especially  in 
the  nitrate  mines,  generally  demands  wheaten  bread,  and  a 
sufficiency  of  meat  ;  and  other  articles  such  as  are  unheard 
of  among  the  Latin  American  working  class,  as  a  rule. 
The  wines  of  Chile  have  attained  a  deserved  reputation  for 
excellence,  and  are  equal  in  many  respects  to  those  of 
California.  The  vine  is  cultivated  from  Atacama  and 
Coquimbo  to  Concepcion,  a  zone  over  1,000  miles  long,  but 
the  best  wines  are  made  in  the  last-named  district.  Potatoes, 
walnuts — largely  exported — beans,  peas  are  important 
products  and  largely  cultivated  and  consumed.  The 
European  apple  flourishes  excellently  in  the  south,  and 
peaches,  apricots,  plums,  and  cherries.  Central  Chile  is  a 
well-favoured  region  for  agriculture,  and  few  of  the  well- 
kno\vn  fruits  are  not  produced  ;  whilst  the  irrigated  valleys  of 
Coquimbo  and  Aconcagua  furnish  supplies  of  alfalfa,  shipped 
as  fodder  to  the  desert  provinces.  The  climate  generally 
of  Chile   is  suitable  for    cattle-raising,    but    the   industry 


3i8  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

cannot  compete  for  purposes  of  export  with  the  vast  industry 
of  the  Argentina  pampas,  lying  across  the  Cordillera  to  the 
east.  It  forms,  however,  the  sole  occupation  of  the  people 
in  certain  districts.  A  feature  of  the  Chilean  landscape 
in  the  more  fertile  region  is  the  profusion  of  wild-flowers, 
with  bee-keeping  as  a  resulting  industry  of  some  importance  ; 
wild  strawberries  are  found  on  both  sides  of  the  Andes,  and 
the  cultivated  berries  are  excellent. 

The  agricultural  products  of  the  Latin  American  countries 
are  generally  of  considerable  interest,  due  to  their  great 
variety.  Chile  does  not  produce  fruits  of  the  tropics, 
except  in  a  very  small  degree  in  the  north,  and  consequently 
the  agricultural  resources  are  of  the  temperate  zone.  The 
products  include  wheat,  rye,  barley,  oats,  maize,  beans,  peas, 
lentils,  potatoes,  hemp  (seed),  alfalfa  (seed),  clover  (seed), 
tobacco,  hemp  (fibre),  alfalfa,  clover,  cheese,  butter,  wax, 
nuts,  figs,  dry  plums,  olives.  There  were  in  addition 
177,500  beehives  in  the  country,  which  produced  10,700 
quintals  of  honey  ;  and  of  milk  12,000,000  decalitres  were 
produced.*  There  was  a  total  area  of  30,600  hectares  of 
vineyards  (2|  acres)  under  cultivation,  about  half  of  which 
were  irrigated  :  and  an  area  of  9,600  hectares  of  fruit-trees. 

The  pastoral  industry  of  Chile,  as  a  result  of  better  trans- 
portation facilities,  is  being  developed,  especially  in  the 
territory  of  Magellan,  the  southernmost  political  division  of 
the  republic.  Magellan  is  an  excellent  field  for  stock- 
raising.  It  comprises  about  one-fourth  of  the  total  area  of 
Chile,  and  contains  approximately  48,000,000  acres  of  land. 
Its  present  prosperity  is  due  principally  to  sheep-farming 
and  the  working  of  its  gold  placer  mines.  In  Tierra  del 
Fuego  an  English  company  maintains  a  flock  of  a  million 
sheep,  and  the  increase  in  cattle  and  horses,  etc.,  is  con- 
siderable, but  much  less  than  the  resources  of  the  country 
warrant.  Horse-breeding  is  profitable.  The  native  horse  is 
descended  from  Andalusian  stock  and  is  hardy  and  docile, 
and,  it  is  said,  is  capable  of  doing  more  work  with  less  food 
and  care  than  the  European  or  American  horse.  During  the 
last  twenty  years  the  native  stock  has  been  considerably 

*  The  decalitre  is  equal  to  22  gallons. 


THE   REPUBLICS   OF   THE  ANDES— CHILE      319 

improved   by  the  introduction  of  stallions  from  England, 
Germany,  and  France. 

One  of  the  greatest  needs  for  the  increase  of  agriculture 
in  Chile  is  more  agricultural  labour,  and  of  a  better  quality. 
Strong  efforts  have  been  made  by  successive  Chilean  govern- 
ments to  direct  a  stream  of  European  immigration  into  the 
country,  but  it  cannot  be  said  that  this  has  been  very 
successful.  At  the  present  time  various  inducements  are 
offered  for  skilled  artisans  and  agriculturists.  At  one  period, 
in  the  latter  half  of  last  century,  large  sums  of  money  were 
spent  for  that  purpose  :  and  on  the  one  hand  immigrants 
were  coming  in,  whilst  on  the  other  the  native  labouring 
classes  were  leaving  the  country  in  thousands  to  the  neigh- 
bouring republics  in  search  of  better  conditions  of  life,  the 
emigrants  having  numbered  as  many  as  30,000  in  a  single 
year.  Since  that  time  the  conditions  of  labour  have  im- 
proved. In  the  last  census  of  the  foreign  element  Spaniards 
and  Italians  largely  predominated,  whilst  of  British,  French 
and  German  there  were  about  10,000  of  each,  with  a  few  thou- 
sands of  other  European  nationalities  and  a  small  sprinkling 
of  Asiatics.  Immigration  is  highly  desirable,  but  is  very 
small.  The  difficulties  in  the  way  of  attracting  settlers 
have  been  due  in  large  degree  to  the  labour  and  hardships 
involved  in  making  homes  in  the  lands  set  aside  for  colon- 
isation, which  were  situated  in  the  inhospitable  forestal  belt, 
where  to  physical  difficulties  was  added  that  of  lack  of  pro- 
tection from  the  lawless  elements.  The  best  agricultural 
land  of  Chile  is  in  the  hands  of  the  ruling  famihes  and  the 
Catholic  Church,  and  is  not  susceptible  so  far  to  subdivision. 
There  is  no  land  tax.  The  most  important  colonies  are 
the  German,  which  have  been  successful,  and  important 
towns  and  agricultural  industries  have  been  established. 

In  the  regions  more  suitable  for  colonisation,  how- 
ever, the  government  offers  agriculturists  a  free  grant  of 
land,  with  implements  and  materials  for  building,  and  under 
certain  conditions  free  third  and  second-class  passages  to 
Chile  from  abroad,  and  assistance  in  money,  with  second- 
class  passage  for  skilled  artisans.  At  certain  ports,  such  as 
Talcahuano    and   Antofagasta,    there    are    free    hotels    for 


320  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

immigrants  during  the  first  few  days  of  their  arrival,  and  all 
rights  and  liberties  are  guaranteed — conditions  which  are 
not  without  certain  attractions  and  possibilities,  but  which 
have  fully  to  be  weighed  by  the  intending  emigrant. 

The  great  region— the  "  Farthest  South  "  of  the  New 
World — is  one  of  much  interest  to  the  explorer,  but  in  the 
archipelago  of  Western  Patagonia  and  Chilean  Tierra  del 
Fuego  the  climate  is  a  harsh  one.  Terrific  and  almost 
continuous  gales  from  the  west  and  south-west,  incessant 
deluges  of  rain,  and  great  cold  seem  to  render  colonisation 
and  profitable  industry  difficult.  Nevertheless,  on  both  sides 
of  the  straits  of  Magellan  sheep-farming  is  carried  on.  The 
rapid  growth  of  Punta  Arenas,  the  most  southerly  port  in 
the  world,  which  already  contains  more  than  12,000  inhabi- 
tants, drawn  from  many  nationalities,  is  a  proof  of  the  in- 
creasing trade  and  prosperity  of  the  district  that  it  serves. 
The  great  lakes  and  channels  which  communicate  with  the 
Magellan  straits  are  but  little  known,  and  the  grandeur  and 
wildness  of  the  scenery  of  these  rock-girt  solitudes,  with 
their  snow-clad  mountains,  dark  forests,  and  giant  glaciers, 
are  impressive.  The  Patagonian  channels,  through  the  laby- 
rinth of  islands  into  which  the  west  coast  is  broken  up, 
stretch  from  the  entrance  of  the  straits  to  Puerto  Montt 
through  twelve  degrees  of  latitude.  Part  of  the  region  is  in- 
habited by  the  moribund  race  of  the  Yagans  or  Boat  Indians, 
upon  the  Fuegian  coast  and  in  the  Patagonian  channels — 
the  men  of  which  have  been  described  as  throwing  their 
women  overboard  from  their  canoes  in  a  storm,  to  lighten 
the  load. 

Punta  Arenas  lies  in  the  famous  straits  of  Magellan,  on 
the  route  generally  taken  by  steamers  as  opposed  to  that  of 
rounding  the  Horn.  The  strait  is  entirely  in  Chilean  terri- 
tory, whose  boundary  with  Argentina  runs  east  and  west, 
north  of  almost  the  whole  of  Tierra  del  Fuego.  Through 
the  strait,  360  miles  long,  narrow,  twisted  and  overlooked 
by  snowy  moimtains,  Magellan  in  1520  guided  his  armada; 
past  the  land  to  the  south,  stark  with  eternal  cold,  to  which 
from  the  many  fires  observed  on  shore  he  gave  the  name  of 
the  Land  of  Fire — the  fires  of  the  Patagonians,  the  people 


THE   REPUBLICS   OF  THE  ANDES— CHILE      321 

of  the  big  feet.  From  the  strait  Magellan  pushed  his  way 
across  the  great  "  South  Sea,"  which  he  named  the  Pacific — 
first  seen  by  Balboa  at  Darien.  He  would  push  on  even 
if  he  and  his  crew  "  had  to  eat  the  leather  of  the  rigging," 
as  Magellan  exclaimed :  a  prophecy  which  later  was  realised, 
for  famine  attacked  them. 

Among  the  territorial  possessions  of  Chile  are  the  remark- 
able Easter  island  and  the  interesting  Juan  Fernandez,  or 
Selkirk's  islands.  The  principal  island  of  this  latter  group 
is  of  beautiful  aspect,  about  thirteen  miles  long  and  four 
wide,  with  a  wide  valley  traversed  by  streams  and  sur- 
mdunted  by  precipitous  volcanic  rocks  and  pinnacles,  which 
contrast  with  the  rich  vegetation,  the  most  massive  rising 
to  an  elevation  of  3,225  feet  above  the  sea.  There  is  a  fair 
anchorage  at  Cumberland  bay,  and  the  few  inhabitants 
keep  a  small  number  of  sheep,  cattle,  and  horses.  The 
island  was  discovered  by  the  Spanish  pilot,  whose  name  it 
bears,  in  1563,  and  in  1704  Alexander  Selkirk  was  marooned 
there  at  his  own  request,  after  a  quarrel  with  the  Cittque 
Porte's  captain ;  and  his  adventures  are  believed  to  have 
inspired  the  great  romance  of  Defoe's  "  Robinson  Crusoe." 
It  was  reported  that  the  island  had  been  swamped  by  the 
great  tidal  wave  at  the  time  of  the  Valparaiso  earthquake, 
but  this  was  found  to  be  incorrect.  The  island  lies 
off  the  Valparaiso  coast.  Easter  island  lies  2,000  miles 
from  the  Chilean  coast,  and  has  an  area  of  forty-five  square 
miles,  with  about  100  inhabitants  of  Polynesian  race.  In 
1863  large  numbers  of  a  much  greater  population  of  that  time 
were  kidnapped  by  Peru,  for  work  on  the  guano  deposits 
of  the  Peruvian  coast.  The  island  is  famous  for  its  aston- 
ishing archaeological  remains,  consisting  principally  in  great 
stone  platforms  and  colossal  images,  for  whose  existence 
and  of  whose  origin  there  is  no  explanation — vast  idols  which 
are  one  of  the  enigmas  of  the  world.  Some  of  these  colossi 
weigh  250  tons  each,  and  are  as  much  as  thirty-five  to  seventy 
feet  long,  with  numerous  smaller  ones.  A  great  row  of  these 
images  faces  a  crater  lake  on  the  island,  and  others  remain 
in  the  quarry  in  the  trachyte  formation  whence  they  were 
cut.    The  mighty,  stony  visages  of  these  strange  idols  and 

X 


322  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH  AMERICA 

their  half-human  trunks  have  not  been  identified  so  far  with 
the  features  of  any  hving  race  :  and  the  fanciful  theory  has 
been  advanced  that  they  were  erected  by  the  "  wicked 
giants  "  before  the  flood.  The  great  stone  houses  and  plat- 
forms are  in  some  cases  thirty  feet  high  and  300  feet  long, 
of  squared  blocks,  some  of  which  are  six  feet  long,  fitted 
without  mortar,  with  the  roofs  formed  by  overlapping  slabs. 
There  are  hieroglyphics  on  some  of  the  interiors,  and  some 
resemblance  has  been  traced  with  the  works  of  the  Aymaras 
of  early  Peru.* 

The  principal  wealth  of  Chile,  unlike  the  other  Latin 
American  nations,  is  produced  by  the  mineral  industries  and 
exports,  of  which  the  nitrate  or  saltpetre  is  the  most  im- 
portant, its  value  being  greater  than  all  the  other  industries 
of  the  country  combined.  The  mining,  smelting,  and  export 
of  copper,  and  of  copper  ores,  is  also  an  important  branch 
of  Chilean  industry  :  Chile  having  been  formerly  the  chief 
producer  of  copper  for  the  world's  market.  The  principal 
mines  are  in  the  mountain  provinces,  where  valuable  copper 
lodes  and  deposits  are  being  worked.  The  output  of  copper 
from  Chile  in  1897  was  22,000  tons,  and  in  1918  nearly 
107,000  tons.  Next  in  order  is  coal,  mined  principally  in 
the  south,  and  although  not  of  first-class  quality  it  is  a 
valuable  source  of  fuel.  Coal  has  also  been  discovered  of 
late  at  Rio  Blanco,  in  the  Aconcagua  region.  Gold  exists  in 
nearly  all  the  Chilean  provinces,  both  in  the  form  of  reefs 
and  placer  deposits,  but  the  output  is  not  large.  Silver 
represents  an  equal  value  ;  and  borates,  manganese,  and 
sulphur  are  even  more  important  products.  Nearly  50,000 
labourers  are  employed  in  the  mineral  industries  of  Chile, 
half  of  whom  are  the  employes  of  the  nitrate  Oficinas.  The 
first  great  fortunes  made  in  Chile  were  won  from  the  mines. 
It  is  known  that  the  ores  of  Chanarcillo  alone  yielded 
£6,000,000  from  1832  to  1851,  and  the  output  reached 
£14,000,000  in  1867,  when  their  decadence  began,  as  the 
lodes  easily  mined  were  exhausted.  The  mine-owners 
were  without  the  means  to  continue  the  working  into  the 
second  region,  which,  according  to  the  geological  features 
*  But  see  the  Routledge  expedition  results  of  19 14. 


THE   REPUBLICS   OF  THE  ANDES— CHILE      323 

of  the  district,  may  be  still  richer  in  ores  than  the  first.  The 
backward  position  now  occupied  by  some  of  the  richest 
mines  in  Chile  is  due  to  the  fact  that  they  have  not  been 
explored  by  properly  organised  companies. 

The  nitrate  region,  and  its  environment,  and  the  Oficinas 
or  great  establishments  and  general  life  of  the  industry  are 
of  a  unique  character,  peculiar  to  Chile,  A  desert  territory, 
500  or  600  miles  in  length  between  the  Andes  and  the 
Pacific,  constitutes  the  nitrate  region.  Studding  these  deserts 
are  the  great  Oficinas,  active  centres  of  nitrate  production, 
a  hundred  or  more  in  number,  where  English  overseers  dress 
for  dinner,  and  champagne  is  freely  encountered  ;  and  the 
picturesque  but  hard-working  and  turbulent  Chilean  roto,  or 
nitrate-worker — a  being  sui-generis — forms  the  human  back- 
ground of  the  industry.  These  nitrate-producing  centres 
are  worked  in  the  main  by  British  capital,  and  represent 
in  the  aggregate  an  investment  of  more  than  £20,000,000 
sterUng.  So  far  these  centres  of  wealth,  from  Taltal  to 
Pisagua,  have  been  isolated  from  each  other,  except  by 
sea,  with  short  lines  of  railway  descending  from  the 
pampas,  as  the  elevated  deserts  whereon  they  are  situated 
are  termed,  to  the  open  roadsteads  of  the  Pacific.  The 
Longitudinal  Railway  of  Chile,  under  construction,  is 
designed  to  serve  these  centres  and  simultaneously  to  render 
strategic  service  to  the  region,  which  has  always  lain  open 
to  attack  from  the  sea,  and  was  lost  to  Peru  from  this 
circumstance.  Even  the  most  important  of  the  nitrate 
ports,  such  as  Iquique,  depend  practically  for  their  means 
of  subsistence  on  produce  brought  in  by  the  steamers,  and 
for  their  water  supply  upon  pipe-lines  from  springs  many 
miles  distant  in  the  interior. 

The  method  of  occurrence  of  the  Chilean  nitrate  is  peculiar. 
The  great  nitrate  beds  lie  between  the  coast  range  and  the 
Cordillera  in  the  rainless  desert,  at  an  elevation  of  3,000  to 
5,000  feet  above  sea  level,  in  large  basins  or  depressions. 
Conflicting  theories  have  been  advanced  as  to  the  origin  of 
the  deposits  :  the  one  most  generally  accepted  is  that  the 
nitrate  beds  were  the  result  of  the  evaporation  of  sea-water 
in  what  were,  in  earlier  times,  inland  seas,  which  became 


324  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

severed  and  raised  from  the  ocean  by  volcanic  upheavals. 
Thus  the  origin  of  the  nitrate  may  have  been  in  decayed 
vegetation,  seaweed,  and  animal  matter,  fish,  etc.  :  the 
nitrogen  contained  in  which,  by  a  process  of  nitrification, 
combined  with  the  soda  derived  from  the  salt  of  the  sea. 
The  caliche  or  native  nitrate  is  rich  in  iodine,  which  is  com- 
mercially a  by-product  of  its  treatment ;  and  this  might 
seem  to  point  to  the  origin  in  decayed  seaweed. 

The  general  aspect  of  the  nitrate-bearing  ground  is  that  of 
a  sandy  desert,  without  any  appearance  on  the  surface  of  the 
mineral  values  beneath.  On  excavating  this  sand  a  crust  of 
a  compact  nature  is  laid  bare,  and  beneath  this  lies  a  further 
mass  of  sand  with  stones,  salt,  and  traces  of  nitrate;  and  finally, 
at  a  total  depth  of  only  a  few  feet  from  the  surface,  lies  the  bed 
of  caliche  or  nitrate,  great  fiat  deposits,  white,  or  sometimes 
brilliantly  stained  with  various  minerals,  and  of  several 
feet  in  thickness.  This  caliche  is  blasted  and  mined  in 
open  cuts,  and  transported  by  light  railway  or  by  mules  or 
carts  to  the  Oficinas  or  refining  establishment.  The  process 
of  purifying  the  salt  is  comparatively  simple,  although  a 
formidable  array  of  tanks,  elevators,  bins,  engines,  and 
boilers  constitute  the  establishment  of  the  Oficina.  The 
material  is  boiled  in  great  vats,  where  the  various  con- 
stituent salts  are  dissolved,  and  the  iodine  extracted,  and 
the  solution  flows  through  channels  to  crystallising  pans  in 
the  sun  and  lies  like  heaps  of  snow  or  salt  in  the  drying 
yards,  where,  after  drying,  the  nitrate  is  packed  in  sacks 
for  export.  The  whole  operation  of  mining  and  treating 
nitrate  is  one  of  much  interest,  and  one  of  the  most  important 
mineral  industries  in  the  world. 

The  nitrate  fields  or  salitreras,  as  they  are  termed,  are  not 
inexhaustible.  Calculations  have  been  made  assigning  them 
various  durations  of  life,  from  forty  to  loo  years.  Of  late, 
more  extensive  nitrate  beds  have  been  discovered,  and 
doubtless  the  smaller  period  given  is  too  low  an  estimate. 
A  report  by  Chilean  government  engineers  in  1908  gave  a 
minimum  reserve  stock  for  the  nitrate  grounds — whose 
total  area  is  calculated  in  200,000  square  kilometres — of 
220,000,000  tons.  There  are  also  large  deposits  of  the  "  ripio," 


THE  REPUBLICS  OF  THE  ANDES— CHILE       325 

as  the  waste  matter  from  the  vats  is  termed,  containing  a 
recoverable  proportion  of  nitrate;  for  the  material  has  in 
years  past  been  imperfectly  treated,  and  a  large  percentage 
of  salts  left  in  the  refuse.  The  pre-war  yearly  exports  of 
nitrate  were  about  2,000,000  tons,  which  it  was  then  calcu- 
lated might  rise  to  5,000,000  tons.  Upwards  of  100  years 
of  life  for  the  nitrate  fields  may  not  be  an  exaggerated 
estimate,  but  figures  are  problematical.  The  cost  of  pro- 
ducing the  nitrate,  including  coal,  labour,  freights,  water, 
administration,  which  are  all  expensive  matters  in  the 
Chilean  desert  regions,  does  not  always  leave  a  large  margin 
of  profit  to  the  producer,  although  the  industry  as  a  whole 
is  a  profitable  one.  The  Chilean  nitrate  worker  earns  good 
wages,  and  demands  good  food,  but  it  cannot  be  said  that 
he  represents  any  growing  standard  of  civilisation.  His 
work  is  hard,  his  life  semi-bestial  and  illiterate,  his  dress 
and  habitation  primitive,  his  surroundings  dreary,  and  lack- 
ing in  amenities  which  might  make  for  social  betterment; 
and  he  is  a  hard  drinker,  due  largely  to  the  arduous  nature 
of  the  work :  but  there  is  some  improvement  of  late.  Labour 
is  become  more  difficult  to  obtain,  and  with  the  opening  of 
new  Oficinas  is  likely  to  be  more  expensive. 

The  very  considerable  revenue  reaped  by  the  government 
of  Chile  from  nitrate  export  dues  is  a  source  of  national 
wealth  that  should  make  for  civic  improvement.  Great 
public  works  have  been  carried  out  with  the  wealth  thus 
obtained,  public  buildings  and  warships  have  been  built, 
and  other  matters  and  evidences  of  prosperity  are  observed 
which  have  a  direct  bearing  upon  the  receipts.  But  it 
cannot  be  said  that  much  benefit  accrues  to  the  immediate 
community  that  produces  this  wealth.  As  shewn,  the 
surroundings  of  the  nitrate  workers  possess  few  elements 
of  comfort  and  progress.  It  has  been  stated  that  between 
1880  and  1908,  "  more  than  1,000,000,000  dollars  have  been 
produced  by  the  nitrate  industry  for  Chile,  but  that  this 
enormous  sum  has  in  great  part  been  ill-spent.  There  are 
neither  ships,  sanitation  works,  docks,  nor  sufficient  schools 
and  libraries  where  they  are  wanted.  Sumptuous  public 
buildings  and  houses,  it  is  true,  have  been  erected  in  the 


326  CENTRAL   AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

capital,  leaving  other  places  without  improvements,  and 
where  no  improvements  are  effected  nitrate  revenues  only 
become  a  source  of  satisfaction  for  hungry  office-seekers  and 
of  benefit  to  nepotism  at  the  public  cost."  This  criticism  was 
not  made  from  abroad,  but  by  a  newspaper  of  Valparaiso* 
and  although  the  Press  of  every  country  is  prone  to  attack 
its  own  national  institutions  from  political  and  other  motives, 
this  is  not  without  a  substratum  of  truth.  It  is  unfortun- 
ately the  failing  of  every  land  to  tend  to  exhaust  its  natural 
resources  without  establishing  permanent  conditions  and  in- 
stitutions for  betterment  for  the  workers,  who,  at  the  bottom, 
produce  the  wealth,  as  evidenced  in  a  less  degree  by  the  coal 
mining  industry  of  Great  Britain  or  the  United  States. 

Of  the  many  uses  of  nitrate,  that  of  a  fertiliser  is  the 
principal,  and  its  application  to  the  ground  largely  increases 
the  yield  of  wheat.  The  use  of  nitrate  by  the  various 
countries  of  the  world  is  shewn  below.  The  Chilean  govern- 
ment maintains  a  Propaganda  Agency  abroad,  and  spends 
upon  this  work  some  £40,000  annually,  together  with  sums 
accruing  from  a  levy  on  the  owners  of  the  salitreras,  at  the 
rate  of  half  of  one  per  cent,  on  their  output  of  nitrate.  It 
remains  to  be  seen  if  the  production  of  nitrate  from  the 
atmosphere  is  likely  in  the  future  to  compete  seriously  with 
the  Chilean  product. 

The  production  of  nitrate  from  Chile  in  191 1  reached 
55,550,000  quintals.  Of  this  20,000,000  quintals  went  to 
Great  Britain  or  Continental  ports,  and  more  than  2,000,000 
direct  ;  13,500,000  to  Germany,  and  10,500,000  to  the 
United  States.  Considerable  quantities  are  taken  by  other 
countries,  such  as  France  1,825,000  quintals,  Netherlands 
2,000,000,  Belgium  2,200,000,  South  Africa,  627,000,  Italy 
250,000,  Hawaii  340,000,  Japan  460,000,  Mediterranean 
ports  434,000,  Spain  298,000,  British  Colombia  108,000, 
Egypt  413,000.  The  exports  to  Japan  and  Egypt  increased 
considerably.  The  value  of  the  total  nitrate  export  in  191 1 
was  250,000,000  gold  pesos  or  dollars,  the  peso  being  equal 
to  i8d.  :  and  it  formed  three-quarters  of  the  total  export 
trade,   and  yielded  70  per  cent,   of  the  national  revenue. 

*  El  Mercurio. 


THE  REPUBLICS  OF  THE  ANDES— CHILE       327 

The  amount  of  nitrate  actually  used  in  Great  Britain  is 
relatively  small,  being  in  1911  only  150,000  tons,  and  the 
amount  of  the  import,  whose  value  was  £8,700,000,  was 
mainly  dispersed  elsewhere.  In  1921  the  export  of  nitrate 
had  greatly  declined  from  various  economic  causes,  and  the 
article  has  been  almost  a  drug  on  the  market,  with  serious 
loss  to  producers  and  the  Chilean  Government.  The  total 
world  consumption  for  1920  was  i|  million  tons.  The 
importance  of  the  industry  is  shewn  by  the  fact  that  the 
twenty-two  principal  Oficinas  have  an  aggregate  capital  of 
£7,500,000:   dividends  in  some  cases  of  25  and  35  per  cent. 

The  principal  nitrate-shipping  port  of  Chile  is  Iquique, 
which  is  also  the  main  commercial  centre  of  the  great  arid 
coast  region.  The  amount  of  the  nitrate  export  for  191 1  was 
12,350,000  quintals,  and  from  the  copper  mines  of  the 
Province,  mainly  the  Colluahuasi  district,  copper  ores  of  the 
amount  of  1,500  to  2,500  tons  per  month  were  shipped,  of  a 
value  of  18  to  30  per  cent,  copper.  A  small  amount  of  silver 
is  still  exported  from  the  old  and  extensive  Huantajaya 
silver  mines,  lying  behind  the  towns.  The  import  trade 
and  varied  nationalities  of  the  inhabitants  of  Iquique  show 
the  world-wide  connections  of  the  town  and  province  of 
Tarapaca.  According  to  the  last  census  the  province  con- 
tained 1,400  British  residents,  700  Germans,  450  French, 
820  Spanish,  420  Austrians  and  Hungarians,  170  Americans, 
1,000  Italians,  1,400  Chinese.  The  value  of  imported  goods 
from  Great  Britain  largely  exceeds  that  from  all  other 
sources,  with  the  United  States  and  Germany  following. 
It  is  natural  that  Great  Britain  should  predominate  in  the 
trade  of  Iquique,  the  trade  depending  in  the  main  upon  the 
nitrate  industry,  a  large  proportion  of  the  capital  invested 
in  which — approximately  £10,700,000  out  of  a  total  of 
£27,500,000 — being  British  capital.  German  trade  has  tended 
to  decline  with  the  port.  The  most  important  manufactured 
articles  imported  are  machinery,  of  which  Great  Britain 
supplied  £94,000,  the  United  States  £20,000,  Belgium  £10,500 
and  Germany  £2,000.  Naturally  the  figures  for  any  year 
are  dependent  upon  the  placing  of  large  contracts,  and  large 
single  items  may  cause  them  to  vary,  but  the  strong  business 


328  CENTRAL   AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

and  social  position  occupied  by  the  British  in  Iquique  is 
reflected  naturally  in  trade,  for  wherever  a  British  com- 
munity is  estabhshed  abroad,  the  importation  of  British- 
made  goods  generally  follows. 

Various  Oficinas  in  the  province  have  substituted  oil  for 
coal  as  fuel,  and  large  tanks  are  being  erected  in  Iquique ; 
and  the  example  will  probably  be  followed  by  the 
nitrate  railways.  The  oil  is  of  CaUfornian  and  Peruvian 
origin. 

The  completion  of  the  Longitudinal  railway  will  destroy 
the  present  isolation  of  Iquique,  which  has  always  been  de- 
pendent upon  steamer  traffic  for  its  means  of  communica- 
tion and  food  products,  and  which  must  be  regarded  as  a 
community  set  in  the  midst  of  deserts,  drawing  its  life 
from  one  single  and  exhaustible  product.  Iquique  is  not 
without  various  pleasing  features  of  social  life,  however,  and 
among  its  institutions  is  the  well-known  British  Club. 
The  other  nitrate  ports  are  Pisagua,  Junin,  Caleta  Buena, 
Tocopilla,  Antofagasta,  and  Taltal. 

The  coal-mining  industry  of  Chile  is  of  considerable  import- 
ance, in  view  of  the  necessity  for  sources  of  fuel,  both  for 
railway,  steamers,  and  other  industries.  The  coal  deposits 
of  Chile  lie  in  the  south,  and  Coronel  and  Talcahuano  are 
the  ports  around  which  the  industry  centres,  and  v/hich  give 
outlet  to  the  coal-producing  districts.  The  Arauco  Company, 
a  British  enterprise,  has  greatly  improved  the  port,  with 
docks  and  breakwaters,  for  the  easier  shipment  of  the  coal 
and  wheat  supplies  of  the  region,  and  the  company  possesses 
100  miles  of  railway  line  ;  and  in  1912  had  an  output  of 
about  200,000  tons  of  coal.  The  coal  mines  of  Lota  and 
Coronel  in  this  region  are  the  largest  in  Chile,  and  of  great 
importance  as  sources  of  fuel  on  the  Pacific  coast.  They 
belong  to  a  wealthy  Chilean  company,  with  a  capital  of 
18,000,000  dollars,  whose  $100  shares  in  1912  were  quoted 
at  $170.  The  town  of  Lota  has  some  10,000  inhabitants, 
and  is  picturesquely  situated,  with  a  good  roadstead.  The 
coal  mines  incline  under  the  sea,  and  one  of  the  shafts,  1,000 
feet  deep,  has  galleries  extending  for  more  than  3,000  feet 
seaward :     and     years    ago    a    catastrophe    was    suffered 


THE   REPUBLICS   OF  THE  ANDES— CHH^E      329 

by  an  inundation  of  water.  The  three  principal  mines  pro- 
duce an  aggregate  of  more  than  1,000,000  tons  of  coal  per 
annum,  consumed  in  about  equal  parts  by  the  steamers 
and  the  railways.  The  coal  is  of  moderate  quality,  but 
inferior  to  that  of  Britain  and  Australia,  to  which  it  stands 
in  the  relation  of  about  120  to  100  tons  in  value  as  a  com- 
bustible. It  is,  however,  cheaper,  selling  at  about  i8s.  per 
ton,  whilst  English  or  Australian  coal  in  Valparaiso  costs 
up  to  60s.,  the  cost  of  freight  being  more  than  the  original 
value  of  the  article.  The  Lota  mines  have  been  producing 
since  1852.  In  connection  with  the  coal  industry  at  Lota 
are  smelting  works,  reducing  the  ores  from  the  interior 
at  the  rate  of  some  30,000  tons  of  bars  annually. 

The  first  cargo  of  iron  from  Chile,  which  amounted  to 
40,000  tons,  was  received  in  1912  at  Glasgow,  and  was 
pronounced  superior  in  quality  to  Spanish  and  Swedish 
irons.  Chile  was  the  first  country  to  work  the  iron 
industry  on  anything  like  a  large  scale.  A  syndicate  of 
European  capitalists,  including  the  well-known  French  firm 
of  Creusot,  under  concession  from  the  government,  erected, 
at  the  picturesque  port  of  Corral,  in  Southern  Chile,  large 
smelting  works,  which  were  capable  of  turning  out  both  bar 
iron  and  manufactured  iron  goods  in  quantities  sufficient  to 
meet  the  needs  of  Chile  and  a  large  part  of  the  South  Ameri- 
can continent  :  also  pig  iron.  The  enterprise  closed  down 
in  191 1  due  to  difficulties  of  labour  and  material  and  ques- 
tions with  the  government,  and  the  mines  were  sold  in  19 13 
to  the  American  Steel  Company  of  Bethlehem,  Pennsylvania, 
whose  experts  pronounced  the  deposits  to  be  of  enormous 
extent.  But  recently  an  arrangement  has  been  made  with 
the  German  Krupps  to  develop  the  industry. 

In  means  of  communication  Chile,  although  lacking 
greatly,  is  much  in  advance  of  the  other  Andean  repubhcs, 
and  has  an  aggregate  length  of  railway  of  nearly  4,800  miles. 
Of  this  mileage  about  half  is  controlled  by  the  state,  and 
about  half  by  private  enterprise  or  public  companies.  Some 
1,600  miles  have  been  under  construction  on  account  of 
the  government,  or  under  state  guarantee,  at  a  cost  of  nearly 
£15,000,000.   The   working   of   the   Chilean   state   railways 


330  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

does  not  give  satisfactory  results  from  a  financial  point 
of  view,  the  gross  receipts  in  general  being  increasingly  less 
than  the  running  expenses,  with  serious  national  loss.  It  is, 
however,  held  in  Chile  that  they  are  worked  in  the  interests 
of  the  community  and  of  the  industries  they  serve,  but 
there  are  proposals  to  lease  them  to  foreign  companies, 
which  would  doubtless  bring  greater  benefit  financially. 
These  state  lines  are  those  which  traverse  the  vale  of  Chile 
in  the  main,  as  previously  described.  But  the  region  served 
by  the  government  lines  is  the  most  productive,  and  promises 
to  become  more  so  in  the  future,  and  it  might  have  been 
thought  that,  conducted  on  business  lines  and  with  im- 
proved service,  a  profit  instead  of  a  loss  would  result.  The 
main  line,  from  the  port  of  Valparaiso  in  the  north  of  the 
region  to  Osorno  in  the  south,  forty-seven  miles  inland 
from  Puerto  Montt,  is  709  miles  long. 

There  is  a  wide  variation  of  gauges  in  the  connecting  and 
isolated  railway  lines  of  Chile,  the  state  lines  having  three 
different  gauges,  embodying  1,120  miles  of  5  feet  6 
inches,  56  miles  of  3  feet  6  inches,  and  22  miles  of  metre,  or 
3  feet  3  inches.  In  the  private  or  company-owned  lines 
there  are  as  many  as  seven  different  gauges,  ranging  from 
2  feet  6  inches  to  5  feet  6  inches.  The  Antofagasta  and 
Bolivia  fine  is  of  the  former  very  narrow  gauge,  of  2  feet 

5  inches  ;  the  Nitrate  railway  is  of  the  British  standard 
gauge  of  4  feet  8-|  inches  ;  the  Taltal  line  is  3  feet  6  inches, 
and  the  Trans-Andean  is  one  metre  gauge,  changing  at  Los 
Andes  to  the  Valparaiso-Santiago  government  line  of  5  feet 

6  inches. 

The  total  capital  of  the  four  principal  railways  of  non- 
state  ownership  amounts  to  £14,500,000.  These  are 
British  enterprises,  and  include  the  Antofagasta  railway, 
769  miles  long,  the  Arauco,  100  miles,  the  Nitrate  railway, 
377  miles,  serving  Iquique  and  the  allied  ports  and  Oficinas, 
and  the  Taltal  railway,  184  miles.  These  railways 
earn  in  gross  receipts  an  annual  sum  of  several  million 
sterling,  with  dividends  of  nine  per  cent,  at  times.  For  1920, 
the  Antofagasta  line  earned  £2,370,000:  total  expenses 
were  sixtj^-eight  per  cent.  Their  total  mileage  is  1,430  miles. 


THE  REPUBLICS   OF   THE   ANDES— CHILE       r.i 


jjj 


including,  however,  300  miles  of  the  Antofagasta  railway  in 
Bolivia. 

This  railway,  the  Antofagasta  and  Bolivian  line,  is  an 
international  railway  connecting  Antofagasta,  Mejillares,and 
Coloso,  the  Chilean  ports,  with  La  Paz,  the  capital  of 
Bolivia,  and  with  the  great  mining  centre  of  Potosi  and  others. 
The  extensive  nitrate  region  of  Antofagasta,  with  twenty 
or  more  Oficinas,  is  traversed,  and  the  irrigated  territory  of 
the  river  Loa,  beyond  which  is  the  copper  mining  region  of 
Calama,  7,500  feet  above  sea  level.  At  10,000  feet  elevation 
the  Loa  is  crossed  by  a  remarkable  steel  viaduct,  and  the 
snow-capped  Cordillera  is  seen  ;  the  San  Pedro  volcano, 
with  a  perpetual  wreath  of  smoke.  The  highest  point 
reached  on  the  main  line  is  at  223  miles  from  the  coast, 
at  13,000  feet  elevation.  Thence  the  remarkable  borax 
deposits  of  Cebollar  are  passed  :  a  solid  lake  of  gleaming 
mineral  salts,  the  greatest  borax  deposit  in  the  world, 
lying  12,200  feet  above  sea  level,  and  forming  a  source  of 
profit  to  the  British-owned  company  which  exploits  it.  The 
great  Bolivian  plateau  to  Oruro  which  is  traversed  is  the 
centre  of  a  rich  mining  district  ;  and  the  branch  line  to  the 
copper  mines  of  Colluahuasi  is  the  highest  railway  in  the  world, 
reaching  15,809  feet  above  sea  level,  through  an  extremely 
bleak  and  rocky  region.  The  culminating  point  of  the  Cor- 
dillera is  Ollague,  a  snow-clad  mountain  rising  to  20,000 
feet,  a  giant  landmark  on  the  frontier  of  Bolivia.  The 
railway  passes  Uyuni,  the  chief  town  of  the  silver  mining 
district,  which  contains  the  famous  Huanchaca  mines,  and 
skirts  the  shores  of  Lake  Poopo  to  Oruro  ;  and,  continuing 
along  the  Desaguadero  river,  and  the  Titicaca  plateau, 
reaches  La  Paz.  The  total  distance  by  rail  from  the  coast 
is  720  miles,  which  is  covered  in  forty-eight  hours,  the 
traveller  having  the  advantage  of  the  sleeping  car.  The 
railway  from  Arica  to  La  Paz,  which  also  runs  both  in 
Chilean  and  Bolivian  territory,  is  described  in  the  chapter 
upon  Bohvia.  It  has  been  very  recently  completed  and 
opened  for  traffic. 

The  Chilean  Trans- Andean  railway,  and  the  corresponding 
line  upon  the  Argentine  slope  of  the  Andes,  is  one  of  the 


332  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

greatest  engineering  accomplishments  in  the  world,  in  its 
particular  field.  From  Valparaiso  the  line  reaches  Santiago, 
and  ascends  the  fertile  lower  slopes  and  valleys  of  the  Cor- 
dillera, reaching  the  great  Cumbre  or  summit,  and  perforating 
the  crest  with  a  tunnel  at  10,880  feet  above  sea  level,  below 
the  Uspallata  Pass,  This  tunnel  is  10,450  feet  long.  Exceed- 
ingly heavy  work  was  necessary  upon  this  line,  and  the 
narrow  gauge  system  of  the  mountain  section  renders  trans- 
shipment necessary.  The  total  distance  of  the  international 
route  from  Valparaiso  to  Buenos  Ayres  is  888  miles  :  the 
line  thus  forming  a  transcontinental  route  across  South 
America  in  its  narrowing  part,  and  avoiding  for  the  traveller 
the  sea  voyage  through  the  straits  of  Magellan.  The  heavy 
snowfall  on  the  Chilean  Andes  has  rendered  the  line 
unreliable  since  its  construction.  Due  to  avalanches,  floods, 
and  resulting  damage,  the  railway  in  1912  was  closed  from 
May  to  October.  At  one  time  snow  fell  unceasingly  for 
many  days  on  the  Chilean  side,  and  drifts  fifty  feet  deep 
were  formed  :  these  were  the  cause  of  a  series  of  gigantic 
avalanches,  which  in  one  place  carried  down  a  rock  slide, 
burying  the  railway  track  under  6,000  tons  of  rock,  and 
completely  sweeping  it  away  in  others.  An  exceptionally 
severe  winter  was  encountered  in  the  temperate  regions 
of  South  America  in  1912,  and  the  possibility  is  one 
which  is  likely  to  occur  periodically :  and  it  has  been 
necessary  to  build  snow-sheds  to  protect  the  line.  These 
snow-sheds,  which  are  familiar  to  the  traveller  on  other 
mountain  railways,  are  long  "  tunnels  "  of  timber  baulks, 
of  immense  strength.  There  are  forty  miles  of  such  on  the 
Calif ornian  Sierra  Nevada  railway,  and  the  avalanches,  as 
well  as  rock  slides,  pass  harmless  over  these  structures. 
They  tend  to  prevent  the  enjoyment  by  the  passenger  of  the 
magnificent  mountain  views,  however,  and  in  some  instances 
a  summer  line  is  conducted  around  them.  On  the  Chilean 
line  the  extension  of  the  snow-sheds  has  been  necessary,  and 
snow  ploughs,  as  used  in  North  America,  are  being  intro- 
duced. The  great  peak  of  Aconcagua  is  the  most  striking 
landmark  beheld  from  the  railway.  Financially  the  Trans- 
Andean  railway  has   not  yet  been  a  success.     The  cost  of 


THE   REPUBLICS   OF   THE  ANDES— CHILE      333 

the  Chilean  section  of  the  hne  was  approximately  £1,500,000, 
upon  which  the  state  had  guaranteed  a  5  per  cent,  interest, 
or  nearly  £75,000  per  annum,  which  was  payable  since 
1910,  when  the  line  was  completed.  But  the  traffic  returns 
have  not  nearly  reached  this  sum,  nor  has  international 
trade  developed  across  the  Andes  to  the  extent  that  was 
hoped  for.  Defects  in  construction  and  management  were 
alleged.  The  future  may  show  that  with  an  amalgamation 
of  the  two  companies  which  operate  the  Chilean  and 
Argentine  section,  and  an  arrangement  with  the  Buenos 
Ayres  and  Pacific  Line,  better  results  will  be  attained. 

The  Longitudinal  railway  of  Chile,  under  construction 
for  the  government  by  a  British  firm  of  contractors,  is 
designed  to  traverse  the  entire  country  from  north  to 
south,  effecting  a  juncture  with  the  railway  systems  of  the 
republic  itself,  connecting  the  various  isolated  lines,  such  as 
those  of  the  Vale  of  Chile,  the  Nitrate  railways  of  Iquique, 
and  other  coast  lines,  and  the  systems  which  run  from 
the  Chilean  coast  into  Bolivia  :  and  thus  through  com- 
munication, upon  the  completion  of  the  Bolivia-Argentine 
link  at  Tupiza,  would  be  effected  between  the  Chilean  and 
Argentine  capitals,  and — given  the  joining  of  the  Peruvian 
Central  and  Southern  railways  at  Cuzco — with  the  capital  of 
Peru.  Thus  the  system  would  form  part  of  the  long- 
proposed  Pan-American  railway,  which  is  designed  to 
connect  North  with  South  America. 

One  of  the  valuable  purposes  of  the  Longitudinal  railway 
is  that,  in  establishing  communication  by  land  between  the 
agricultural  southern  districts  of  Chile  and  the  arid  northern 
region,  food  supplies  for  the  nitrate  towns  and  Ohcinas  will 
be  readily  available,  and  less  dependence  placed  upon  the 
sea  and  the  difficult  harbours  of  the  coast  served  by  the 
steamers.  The  line  is  already  constructed  in  part,  and  from 
the  Baquedano  station  on  the  Antofagasta  railway  to 
Quillaga,  on  the  river  Loa,  a  distance  of  125  miles,  lies  one 
of  the  richest  nitrate  regions,  in  the  suffocating  desert,  at  an 
elevation  3,400  feet  above  sea  level.  These  nitrate  lands 
belong  principally  to  the  state,  but  large  Oficinas  are  being 
erected,  and  towns  springing  up,  and  important  copper  mines 


334  CENTRAL   AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

worlving  :  places  which  were  formerly  too  remote  from 
means  of  transport.  The  Loa  at  that  point  is  a  mere  thread 
of  salt-laden  water  that  has  forced  its  way  through  the  desert 
from  the  Cordillera,  flowing  through  a  broad,  ancient  river 
channel — the  channel  in  a  different  climatic  period  possibly 
of  a  great  river — only  a  few  feet  wide  and  deep.  Yet  this 
relatively  feeble  stream  is  worth  perhaps  millions  of  pounds 
to  the  nitrate  industry.  The  value  of  water  in  desert  regions 
is  almost  incalculable,  and  cannot  be  realised  by  the  dweller 
in  lands  of  the  temperate  zones.  The  stream  furnishes 
hydrauHc  power  and  water  supply,  tapped  by  steel  pipe 
lines.  The  railway  crosses  the  oasis  of  Quillaga,  with  its 
huge  carob-trees  a  hundred  years  old  ;  a  valley  a  mile  broad. 
Quillaga  is  an  ancient  Inca  town,  and  of  considerable  interest 
to  the  archaeologist  as  marking  the  southerly  extent  of  Inca 
settlements.  An  old  Sun  Temple,  ruined,  exists,  and  from 
the  Acropolis  petrified  corpses  have  been  disinterred,  from 
the  character  of  whose  skulls  evidence  has  been  adduced  in 
support  of  the  Mongolian  origin  of  the  earher  inhabitants. 
The  remains  of  old  smelting  furnaces  are  also  encountered, 
as  in  other  parts  of  northern  Chile.  The  few  inhabitants  of 
the  village  dwell  in  the  squalid  adobe  huts,  raising  small 
crops  of  alfalfa  and  maize  and  collecting  the  carob  seeds, 
which  are  used  in  making  a  native  drink :  and  in 
netting  the  camarones  or  great  fresh-water  prawns,  which 
exist  in  the  coast  rivers,  as  described  elsewhere  :  Crustacea 
which  command  a  good  price  as  a  table  delicacy.  This 
northern  section  of  the  Longitudinal  railway  was  to  be  com- 
pleted in  1914,  at  a  contracted  cost  of  more  than  £3,000,000, 
carrying  a  government  guarantee  of  5  per  cent.  Difficulties 
of  floods,  as  well  as  lack  of  water,  and,  finally,  of  the  war, 
have  been  encountered,  and  in  1921  a  small  gap  between 
Arica  and  Iquique  remained  incompleted. 

As  regards  through  communication  upon  the  Chilean  rail- 
ways, the  break  of  gauge  on  the  existing  lines  is  a  serious 
difficulty,  which  will  involve,  until  it  is  remedied,  costly 
transhipment  charges. 

The  sea  furnishes,  and  doubtless  always  will  furnish  the 
chief  means   of   communication    for   Chile.     Yet,   notwith- 


THE   REPUBLICS   OF   THE  ANDES— CHILE      333 

standing  this  maritime  environment,  the  nation  has  not 
developed  a  sea-trafficking  element,  although  the  navy  is 
famous,  and  the  Chilean  sailor,  when  well  led,  has  proved 
a  good  sea  fighter.  The  Chilean  native  boatmen,  more- 
over, are  expert  in  the  management  of  their  craft,  fearless 
and  strong.  But  the  steamers  of  the  Chilean  line  are 
officered  by  Europeans  principally,  and  there  is  little 
or  no  national  coasting  traffic  beyond.  The  navy  is  essen- 
tially British  in  organisation  and  regimen,  and  all  the  best 
ships  were  built  in  Great  Britain.  The  two  countries  are 
strongly  linked  together  by  traditions  connected  with  the 
navy  and  the  history  of  sea  power  on  the  Pacific  coast  : 
and  in  the  capital  the  names  of  British  sea  heroes  connected 
with  Chilean  history  are  freely  to  be  seen  in  the  nomen- 
clature of  streets  and  monuments.  There  is  a  naval  school 
at  Valparaiso  which  is  noted  for  the  excellence  of  its  instruc- 
tion, and  the  Chileans  take  great  pride  in  their  generally 
efficient  navy,  which  they  regard  as  one  of  the  greatest  of 
their  national  institutions.  One  of  the  principal  sources  of 
wealth  of  South  America — the  nitrate  fields — was  lost  to 
Peru  by  reason  of  a  lack  of  sea  power  ;  and  Chile  to-day  is 
open  to  easy  attack  from  the  sea  :  a  matter  which  is  not 
forgotten  by  the  state. 

The  manufacturing  interests  in  Chile  are  of  growing 
importance,  as  is  to  be  expected  of  a  people  whose  com- 
mercial instincts  are  relatively  strong.  A  high  tariff  policy 
has  been  forced  upon  the  country  by  these  interests,  but 
they  are  mainly  confined  to  articles  of  necessity,  foods, 
beverages,  textile  fabrics,  and  clothes,  also  leather\vork, 
woodwork,  ironware,  chemicals,  and  pottery.  Of  great 
mineral  and  agricultural  resources,  Chile  has  not  yet  had 
sufficient  capital,  nor  can  command  sufficient  expert  labour, 
necessary  for  the  textile  and  other  manufacturing  industries 
to  reach  their  fuller  development.  But  there  are  more 
than  500  large  flour  mills  in  the  country,  part  of  which  are 
equipped  with  modern  machinery,  and  in  earlier  times, 
before  competition  grew,  flour  was  one  of  the  principal 
articles  of  Chilean  export.  The  coal  deposits  have  made 
possible  the  development  of  various  industries  in  addition 


336  CENTRAL   AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

to  ore-smelting,  and  numerous  small  manufactories  have 
been  built,  principally  in  Santiago,  Valparaiso,  and  Copiapo. 
Leather  tanning  is  an  important  industry,  and  boot,  shoe, 
and  saddle  factories  have  been  established  as  a  result,  under 
a  high  tariff.  There  are  also  foundries  and  machine  shops  : 
and  a  large  number  of  factories  for  canning  and  preserving 
fruits  and  vegetables,  numerous  small  factories  for  textiles, 
and  several  large  cloth  factories,  also  paper  mills.  The 
breweries  are  generally  worked  by  Germans.  Sugar  beet 
production  and  refining  is  a  further  industry ;  and  furniture 
and  other  wood- working  factories.  Chemicals  are  also 
produced,  due  partly  to  the  growth  of  the  mining  industry. 
There  are  good  opportunities  for  the  investment  of  capital  in 
the  expanding  manufacturing  industries  of  Chile,  in  various 
fields. 

Chile,  before  its  acquisition  of  the  rich  nitrate  and 
mining  provinces  of  the  north,  was  one  of  the  poorest  of  the 
Latin  American  countries.  During  the  years  of  much  fiscal 
prosperity  brought  about  by  the  growing  revenue  from  the 
nitrate  fields,  up  to  1906,  the  countrj?^  suffered  much 
from  financial  crises,  caused  by  the  stagnation  of  industries 
and  political  disorder,  added  to  the  effect  of  a  greatly  de- 
based paper  currency.  In  1895  a  law  had  been  passed  under 
which  the  sterHng  value  of  the  peso  was  reduced  to  i8d., 
at  which  rate  the  outstanding  paper  money  should  be 
converted,  and  a  conversion  fund  was  created  for  that 
purpose.  To  ensure  the  meeting  of  its  foreign  obligations 
the  nitrate  and  iodine  taxes  and  import  duties  were  collected 
in  gold,  and  gold  and  currency  accounts  were  kept  separately. 
In  1898  the  financial  crisis  caused  the  suspension  of  specie 
payments,  and  forced  an  issue  of  additional  paper  money, 
which  was  repeated  later,  but  in  1907  an  act  fixed  a  limit 
to  the  amount  of  paper  in  circulation.  The  currency  of 
Chile  is  therefore  of  two  kinds — the  gold  peso,  of  18  English 
pence,  and  the  fiscal  peso,  subject  to  exchange  fluctuations. 
The  gold  coins  are  of  5,  10,  and  20  peso  pieces.  The  method 
of  treating  receipts  from  loans  as  revenue  and  of  dividing 
receipts  and  expenditures  into  ordinary  and  extraordinary 
classes,  and  into  separate  gold  and  currency  accounts,  leads 


THE  REPUBLICS  OF  THE  ANDES— CHILE     337 

to  confusion  and  discrepancies  in  the  national   accounts. 

A  feature  of  the  Chilean  budget  has  been  for  many  years 
the  excess  of  expenditure  over  revenue,  with  an  accumula- 
tion of  deficits.  The  budget  estimates  for  1913  revealed 
various  matters  of  interest,  such  as  the  income  derived  from 
nitrate  dues — the  principal  source  of  wealth — import  dues, 
railways,  which  belong  to  the  state;  the  sale  of  nitrate 
grounds,  and  so  forth:  and  in  the  expenditure  the  items 
disbursed  for  railways,  colonisation,  education,  worship,  and 
other  matters,  such  as  are  in  some  respects  foreign  to  Euro- 
pean economy.  The  accounts  showed  a  deficit  in  currency 
and  a  surplus  in  gold,  which,  calculated  at  65  per  cent, 
premium,  theoretically  cancelled  the  deficit,  leaving  a  small 
balance  in  favour  of  the  exchequer.  The  estimated  income 
was  $192,800,000  currency,  and  $103,500,000  gold. 

The  Chilean  exports  largely  exceed  in  value  that  of  the 
imports,  for  1920  being  nearly  double.  These  last  are  con- 
sidered to  be  much  under  the  requirements  of  the  nation, 
but  high  prices,  unemployment,  and  other  matters  have 
reduced  purchasing  power.  Before  the  war  Great  Britain 
held  first  place  in  the  foreign  trade,  but  during  the  war  the 
United  States  occupied  that  place.  The  general  trade  of  the 
country  has  advanced  considerably,  and  there  is  keen 
rivalry  among  the  manufacturing  nations  for  it.  The  follow- 
ing table  shews  the  growth : 

Year      Imports     Exports 

1913  ;^25, 100,000   ;^3o,  100,000 

1914  20,232,000  22,476,000 

1915  11,491,000  24,561,000 

1916  16,689,000  38,519,000 

1917  26,600,000  53,400,000 

1918  32,706,000  57,272,000 

1919  30,100,000  23,772,000 

1920  34,100,000  59,300,000 

The  fluctuations  in  the  paper  "  peso  "  have  been  severe, 
the  exchange  falling  from  14  pence  to  10  pence  in  1920  and 
7  pence  in  1921. 

In  summing  up  the  general  position  of  Chile,  it  may  be 
said,  as  regards  the  foreign  visitor,  that  the  republic  is  one 
of  those  countries  which,  having  great  internal  riches,  a 


338  CENTRAL   AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

splendid  climate,  and  many  other  attractions,  is  more  or 
less  cut  off  from  the  Old  World  on  account  of  its  geographical 
position.  Yet  the  west  coast  of  South  America  is  to-day 
ripe  for  commercial  enterprise  and  affords  an  excellent 
field  for  the  investment  of  foreign  capital.*  There  are  few 
countries  which  contain  such  diverse  conditions  of  life  as  is 
the  case  in  Chile,  From  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Antarctic 
regions  in  the  south  there  is  every  range  of  climate  up  to  the 
northern  districts,  which  are  well  within  the  tropics.  As  a 
result  of  the  extended  coast  line  and  owing  to  the  unde- 
veloped state  of  the  country  Chile  is  for  all  practical  purposes 
a  series  of  separate  regions,  as  communication  by  land  is 
difficult,  where  not  impossible,  and  in  many  cases  the  various 
ports  are  as  much  isolated  as  though  they  were  actually 
cut  off  from  the  mainland.  This  condition  will,  however, 
be  remedied  by  the  new  railways.  The  three  regions — 
the  southern  or  wet  region,  the  central  or  temperate  region, 
and  the  northern  or  barren  region — are  those  most  pointedly 
characteristic  of  the  country.  In  the  region  of  the  south, 
given  over  principally  to  agricultural  pursuits,  there  appears 
to  be  a  prospect  of  great  prosperity  for  this  calling,  as,  with 
a  steady  increase  in  the  population  and  wealth  of  the  north, 
the  demand  for  meat  and  vegetables  grows  in  proportion. 
The  townships  are  small  and  scattered,  but  the  recent  com- 
pletion of  a  railway  from  the  capital  should  do  much  to 
open  up  the  southern  districts  of  the  republic.  In  the 
central  region  conditions  generally  are  much  more  advanced, 
and  the  two  principal  cities,  Santiago  and  Valparaiso,  are 
of  considerable  size  and  wealth,  and  Concepcion  is  a  town  of 
some  importance.  The  hotels  in  Chile  are,  with  few  excep- 
tions, uncomfortable,  and  travelling  for  pleasure  is  almost 
out  of  the  question  in  most  districts,  a  condition  common  to 
nearly  all  Latin  American  republics,  except  for  the  traveller 
whose  objects  are  more  than  those  of  the  mere  tourist. 
Of  roads  there  are  none,  as  the  word  is  understood  in  Europe, 
what  tracks  there  are  being  thick  with  dust  in  the  summer 
and  muddy  slime  in  the  winter.  The  shops  in  the  large 
towns  are  good,  but  prices  make  living  very  expensive,  and 

*  Some  oi  the  views  expressed  here  are  from  the  Foreign  Office  Report. 


THE   REPUBLICS   OF   THE   ANDES— CHILE     339 

what  may  seem  a  good  income  is  soon  swallowed  up  in  the 
necessaries  and  comforts  which  a  foreigner  must  have. 
The  climate  of  Valparaiso  is  temperate,  but  the  prevalence 
of  high  winds  and  clouds  of  dust  in  the  summer,  and  violent 
rains  in  the  winter,  are  discomforts  which,  however,  have 
the  compensations  in  the  inter-season  of  fine  weather,  with 
eight  months  of  sunshine.  In  winter  the  town  is  flooded 
on  frequent  occasions,  due  to  choked  sewers,  but  the  new 
drainage  works  should  remedy  this  condition.  Santiago  is 
essentially  Chilean,  while  Valparaiso  is  cosmopolitan,  and 
the  greater  number  of  Europeans  remain  in  the  port.  The 
Spanish  spoken  by  the  Chileans  is  of  stronger  accent  than 
that  of  their  neighbours.  English  is  spoken  by  almost 
every  Chilean  business  man,  and  is  the  international 
medium  of  intercourse.  The  southern  parts  of  Chile, 
especially  around  Santiago  and  Valparaiso,  are  infested 
with  bandits,  who,  by  their  methods  of  murder,  assault 
and  robbery,  make  it  dangerous  to  wander  off  the  beaten 
track  or  be  abroad  after  dark."  *  The  Chilean  army  of  9,000 
men  is  efficient,  the  officers  having  been  trained  by  Germans  ; 
and  some  of  the  officers  of  the  navy  have  served  on  board 
British  men-of-war.  The  cruisers  perform  the  duty  of 
patrols  up  and  down  the  coast,  assisting  in  preventing  or 
quelling  the  strikes  which  are  common  in  the  northern 
ports. 

The  fauna  of  Chile  exhibits  a  marked  absence  of  animal 
and  bird  life.  The  vegetation  is  rich  in  some  of  the  southern 
parts,  but  it  is  nowhere  brilliant,  and  gives  the  foreigner 
the  impression  that  something  is  missing  from  the  natural 
aspect  of  a  land  where  there  is  so  much  warmth  and  sun- 
shine. The  birds  are  few,  and  nearly  all  of  sombre  plumage. 
A  few  hawks  and  a  species  of  turkey  buzzard  are  the  most 
noteworthy,  and  in  the  solitudes  of  the  Cordillera  the  condor. 
Of  insects  and  reptiles  there  are  none  particularly  charac- 
teristic of  the  country.  A  ramble  in  the  hills  of  Central 
Chile  offers,  in  many  respects,  similar  landscape  to  that  of 
parts  of  Britain  ;  but  farther  afield  the  traveller  cannot 
venture  without  special  equipment. 

The  future  of  Chile  is  greatly  bound  up  with  the  better 

*  Report  ante. 


340  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

development  of  agriculture,  the  smaller  manufacturing 
industries,  and  the  increase  of  railways.  Figures  of  imports 
and  exports  do  not  necessarily  disclose  prosperity  for  the 
masses.  As  has  been  shown,  the  land  is  held,  in  the  main, 
by  large  landowners ;  and  the  profits  from  the  mineral 
industries  filter  down  but  scantily  to  the  mining  labourer. 
The  great  bulk  of  the  people  are  illiterate,  and  so  cannot 
vote.  But  with  its  varied  resources  and  climate,  Chile 
possesses  conditions  capable  of  assuring  steady  economic 
development,  and  its  people  should  continue  to  occupy 
a  dominant  position  in  their  particular  sphere. 


COLOMBIA    AND    VENEZUELA  341 


CHAPTER  XI 
COLOMBIA  AND  VENEZUELA 

The  republics  of  Colombia  and  Venezuela  occupy  an 
exceedingly  important  position  geographically,  forming  the 
northern  part  of  the  South  American  continent,  facing  upon 
the  Carribean  sea,  or  "  American  Mediterranean."  This 
was  the  "  Spanish  Main,"  the  scene  of  the  exploits  of  the 
Elizabethan  buccaneers,  in  that  heroic  age  of  ocean  chivalry 
which  has  left  among  its  monuments  the  great  sea-fortress 
of  Cartagena.  Across  the  Caribbean  sea  and  gulf  of  Mexico 
lies  the  United  States  ;  and  interposing  are  the  Antilles  and 
West  Indies  islands,  under  the  pohtical  control  of  several 
European  powers,  among  them  Jamaica,  occupying  a 
commanding  position  upon  what  may  prove  an  important 
new  trade  route  afforded  by  the  Panama  canal.  To  the 
east  are  the  South  American  possessions  of  the  British, 
Dutch  and  French  nations — the  Guyanas  ;  and  the  British 
island  of  Trinidad.  Forming  the  western  outlet  to  this 
"  American  Mediterranean  "  is  the  Panama  canal. 

These  two  northern  mountain  republics  of  Colombia  and 
Venezuela,  backward  as  they  are  politically  and  economi- 
cally, embody  some  of  the  most  valuable  areas  of  South 
America ;  rich  in  natural  resources  and  possibilities  of 
economic  development.  Colombia  possesses  the  geographi- 
cal and  strategic  advantage  of  a  coast  line  and  seaports  on 
both  the  Atlantic  and  the  Pacific  oceans,  the  Panama 
isthmus  intervening  :  a  condition  which  may  be  of  much 
value  in  the  future  development  of  the  country,  and  one 
which  is  not  enjoyed  by  any  other  South  American  republic. 

The  principal  and  most  characteristic  approach  to  the 
interesting  republic  of  Colombia  is  through  the  port  and  city 


342  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 

of  Cartagena.  From  the  coast  a  broad  waterway  approaches 
the  city,  past  mangrove-fringed  shores,  a  picturesque 
fishing  village,  and  groves  of  feathery  coco  palms,  under  a 
blue  and  sunny  sky.  This  channel  gives  access  to  a  narrow 
waterway  through  which  the  steamer  is  piloted,  flanked  by 
the  old  dismantled  forts  ;  and  beyond  are  seen  the  walls, 
towers  and  domes  of  the  ancient  city  of  Cartagena,  upon  a 
long,  flat  peninsula  within  a  smooth  landlocked  bay,  whose 
waves  lap  its  very  walls,  the  whole  backed  by  verdure-clad 
hills.  The  position  of  Cartagena  is  of  extreme  interest  and 
value.  The  city  was  founded  in  1533  by  Pedro  de  Heredia, 
who  named  it  after  the  Spanish  city  of  Cartagena  in  Spain, 
founded  by  the  Phoenicians  of  Carthage  ;  and  there  is  some 
resemblance  between  the  Spanish  and  the  Colombian  port, 
and  certain  Mediterranean  qualities  in  the  environment 
of  the  Colombian  coast  and  climate.  The  massive  walls 
of  the  fortifications  along  the  sea  front,  in  some  places 
forty  feet  thick,  are  remarkable  monuments  of  an  earlier 
age  of  piracy.  The  city  on  every  side  reposes  in  an  air  of 
antiquity  and  massive  permanence,  such  as  often  charac- 
terises the  Spanish-colonial  type  of  building  in  Spanish 
American  cities,  but  which  is  especially  marked  in 
Cartagena.  The  aspect  of  old-world  dignity  which  marks  the 
streets  and  buildings  is  a  legacy  of  its  mediaeval  associations 
and  importance  :  the  city  having  been  the  only  one  outside 
the  viceregal  seats  of  Lima  and  Mexico  which  possessed  a 
tribunal  of  the  Holy  Office  of  the  Inquisition :  which 
Ofhce  exercised  certain  functions  designed  to  prevent  the 
entrance  of  foreigners  into  the  Spanish  American  possessions, 
and  conserved  for  Cartagena  its  peculiar  attributes.  The 
lofty  walls  of  the  city  overtop  in  places  the  low  houses 
within  them,  and  their  summit  forms  a  terrace  promenade, 
beside  the  ancient  fortifications  which  command  the  ap- 
proach from  the  sea.  Cartagena  needed  full  protection 
in  olden  times.  A  fine  city,  the  outlet  for  a  rich,  productive 
region,  and  the  storehouse  of  the  gold,  emeralds,  and  silver 
of  New  Granada,  with  its  splendid  natural  position,  it  was  an 
alluring  bait  for  the  corsairs  of  the  Spanish  Main.  Drake 
captured  it  and  held  it  to  ransom  in  1586,  and  in  1697 


COLOMBIA  AND   VENEZUELA  343 

Pointis  repeated  the  exploit  :  and  in  1740  the  British  admiral 
Vernon,  with  a  squadron,  suffered  repulse  and  disaster  before 
its  walls.  Cartagena  is  worthy  of  a  prosperous  future,  which 
in  the  natural  course  of  events  it  is  likely  to  attain.  The 
harbour  is  the  best  on  the  whole  of  the  northern  coast  of 
South  America,  formed  by  an  indentation  of  the  coast  line 
and  enclosed  by  two  long  islands,  but,  due  largely  to  the 
lack  of  sanitary  arrangements,  the  city  of  Cartagena  is 
unhealthy  for  foreigners,  and  the  better  class  people  have 
their  residences  in  the  hills. 

Colombia  is  by  no  means  entirely  a  mountainous  country  ; 
more  than  half  the  area  consisting  in  enormous  llanos,  or 
plains,  lying  east  and  south  of  the  Andes,  sloping  towards 
the  affluents  of  the  Orinoco  and  the  Amazon.  This  plains 
region  is  640  miles  long  and  300  wide,  and  is  covered  in 
part  with  forest,  and  elsewhere  with  grass  ;  the  elevation 
being  from  300  to  500  feet  above  sea  level,  A  part  of 
this  territory  is  unexplored,  and  offers  an  interesting  field 
to  the  adventurous  traveller  ;  as  do  the  little  known  water- 
ways of  the  Guianas,  to  the  east  of  Venezuela. 

The  boundary  of  Colombia  with  Venezuela  is  formed  by 
the  water-parting  of  the  Magdalena  and  the  Orinoco 
rivers,  and  further  east  and  south  by  the  main  affluents 
of  the  Orinoco.  Colombia,  occupying  the  north-west 
portion  of  South  America,  has  five  boundary  neighbours  : 
Ecuador,  Panama,  Peru,  Brazil,  and  Venezuela ;  and 
with  several  of  these  countries  there  are  frontier  ques- 
tions, notwithstanding  attempts  at  arbitration.  A  portion 
of  the  debatable  territory  indeed  is  claimed  by  three  repub- 
lics. The  area  of  Colombia  is  variously  estimated  between 
466,000  and  482,000  square  miles  ;  which  places  the  country 
fourth  in  size  among  the  South  American  states ;  and  the 
population  is  somewhat  under  4,000,000.  The  coast 
line  upon  the  Caribbean  sea  is  1,100  miles  long,  and  upon  th« 
Pacific  about  400  miles. 

Two-fifths  of  the  area  of  Colombia  is  taken  up  by  extremely 
rugged  mountainous  territory  ;  constituting  the  west  and 
north-west  part  of  the  country.  This  region  is  traversed 
by  three  parallel  river  valleys,  running  from  south  to  north  ; 


344  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 

including  the  basins  of  the  Magdalena  and  Cauca  rivers, 
which  flow  into  the  Caribbean  sea.  The  mountains  of 
Colombia  form  the  northern  terminating  ranges  of  the 
Andes,  and  enclose  several  elevated  tablelands  ;  the  higher 
of  which  are  inclement  and  stormy  paramos,  as  they  are 
termed,  a  counterpart  of  the  punas  of  Peru  and  Bolivia. 
The  heavy  mists,  piercing  winds,  and  swamp-like  character 
of  these  higher  plateaux  render  them  at  times  almost  im- 
passable, notwithstanding  that  they  form  the  passes  of  the 
Cordillera  upon  the  routes  of  travel  between  western  and 
eastern  Colombia.  These  cold  uplands  lie  at  elevations  of 
10,000  to  nearly  16,000  feet  above  sea  level,  and  form  con- 
spicuous landmarks  in  the  topography  of  the  region.  The 
Andes  separate  into  three  ranges  north  of  these  plateaux  : 
the  Western,  Central,  and  Eastern  Cordilleras.  The  central 
range  culminates  in  a  line  of  elevated  volcanoes,  rising  in 
some  cases  2,000  and  3,000  feet  above  the  perpetual  snow- 
line, which  in  that  part  of  the  Andes  is  found  at  about 
15,000  feet  above  sea  level :  and  this  central  range  divides 
the  valleys  of  the  Cauca  and  Magdalena  rivers,  its  principal 
peaks  approaching  18,300  feet  in  altitude.  The  summit  of 
these  great  peaks — the  "  Mesa  de  Herveo  " — consists  in  an 
extinct  crater,  nearly  six  miles  across,  presenting  the  appear- 
ance as  viewed  from  Bogota,  the  capital  of  the  republic,  of 
a  giant  table,  from  whose  edge  hangs  down  a  gleaming 
drapery  of  perpetual  snow,  more  than  3,000  feet  deep. 

The  western  Cordillera  follows  the  Pacific  coast  and  dis- 
appears into  the  low  chain  of  hills  which  form  the  backbone 
of  Darien  and  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  :  its  Pacific  slopes 
are  wooded  and  steep,  and  access  to  the  coast  is  difficult. 
The  eastern  Cordillera  is  the  most  important  of  the  mountain 
system  of  Colombia  :  it  embodies  large  areas  of  elevated 
valley  and  tableland  lying  within  the  vertical  temperate 
zone,  and  it  is  in  this  region  that  the  white  population  of 
the  republics  is  principally  found,  and  that  the  greatest 
economic  development  and  civilisation  of  the  republic  has 
been  attained,  centring  in  the  city  of  Bogota. 

The  remote  and  famous  city  of  Santa  Fe  de  Bogota  is 
built  upon  a  broad  sabana  or  elevated  plain,  which  forms  one 


COLOMBIA  AND  VENEZUELA  345 

of  the  largest  cultivated  mountain  plateaux  in  the  world. 
The  soil  of  this  plain  is  of  remarkable  fertility,  and  under 
more  intensive  cultivation  might  yield  all  the  fruits  of  the 
temperate  zone  in  abundance  :  but  at  present  its  products 
are  confined  to  the  customary  matters  of  potatoes  and  cereals, 
with  cattle  and  dairy  produce.  The  city  lies  at  an  elevation 
of  8,600  feet  above  sea  level ;  and  this  is  slightly  more  than 
that  of  the  city  of  Mexico,  which  also  has  an  upland 
environment.  Bogota  is  a  picturesque  city  ;  the  Spanish- 
colonial  character  is  indelibly  stamped  upon  its  streets  and 
plazas  ;  and  the  large  number  of  churches  built  by  the 
Spaniards  testify  to  the  religious  character  of  its  early 
regimen.  Bogota  has  a  population  estimated  at  about  140,000 
inhabitants,  formed  like  that  of  the  other  Andean  countries, 
of  the  small  ruling  class  of  Spanish-descended  people  and 
the  more  considerable  element  of  mestizos,  shading  off  into 
the  great  mass  of  Indian  population  ;  and  here,  as  in  Quito, 
Lima,  Mexico  and  elsewhere,  Parisian  fashions  rub  shoulders 
with  the  sandalled  and  blanketed  Indian,  and  the  Spanish 
mantilla  now  gives  place  to  the  Parisian  hat.  The  aspect 
and  environment  have  that  peculiarly  peaceful  and  attrac- 
tive character  which  many  of  the  Spanish  American  capitals 
possess,  and  the  self-centred  life  of  a  community  typical  of 
such  cities  is  well  displayed.  Communication  with  the 
outside  world  is  not  an  easy  matter  for  the  common  citizen 
of  Bogota,  due  to  the  difficulties  of  the  road,  and  traditions 
cluster  and  remain  as  naturally  as  in  any  Old  World  European 
city.  Topographically  Bogota  is  an  example  of  which  there 
are  many  in  Latin  America,  of  a  city  lifted  above  the  en- 
vironment of  tropical  or  sub-tropical  latitude  by  its  alti- 
tude ;  and  the  condition  carries  with  it  certain  peculiar 
charms,  and  pleasing  customs  of  daily  life.  The  city  lies 
in  the  heart  of  the  tropics,  only  4°  north  of  the  equator,  and 
enjoys  an  equable  climate,  varying  in  temperature  from  54° 
to  64°,  with  a  rainfall  of  43  inches.  The  inhabitants  of 
the  temperate  zones  of  Spanish  America  are  addicted  to 
describing  their  climatic  environment  as  forming  "  veritable 
sanatoria,"  and  in  some  cases  the  description  is  merited. 
When  the  death  rate  is  high,  as  is  generally  the  case,  it  is 


346  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH  AMERICA 

due  to  the  mode  of  life  of  the  poor,  and  when  more  hygienic 
conditions  of  life  shall  prevail,  these  mountain  towns  may 
indeed  become  health  resorts. 

The  situation  of  Bogota  is  a  pleasing  one  :   the  surround- 
ings being  well  watered  by  numerous  lakes  and  streams,  one 
of  which  passes  through  the  city  and  plunges  over  the  edge 
of  the  plateau  at  Tequendama,  in  a  beautiful  cascade  nearly 
500  feet  high.     Two  high  mountains.  La  Guadalupe  and 
Monserrato,    upon    whose    crests    two    imposing    churches 
stand,  rise  from  the  sloping  plain  upon  which  the  city  is 
built,  and  the  streets  slope  downwards  from  a  broad  avenue, 
crossed  at  right  angles  by  others,  forming  blocks  like  great 
terraces.     Handsome   plazas,  with   gardens   and   statuary, 
upon  which  the  principal  buildings  face,  are  features  of  the 
town-planning,  as  customary  in  the  Latin  American  type, 
and  streams  of  cool,  fresh  water  from  the  mountains  run 
down  the  sloping  streets,  wide  acequias  flushing  the  gutters. 
The  streets  as  a  rule  are,  however,  narrow,  but  cleaner  and 
better-paved  than  in  many  sister  cities  of  the  continent, 
and  owing  to  the  frequent  earthquake  shocks  the  houses  are 
generally  of  one  storey  only,  built  of  adobe,  or  sun-dried 
brick,  and  whitewashed.    There  are  but  few  imposing  public 
buildings.     There  are  street  cars,  electric  lights  and  tele- 
phones in  the   city,   which  is  two  and  a  half  miles  long 
and  one  and  a  half  miles  wide.     The  Capitolio,  the  building 
occupied  by  the   Legislature,   is   spacious   and  handsome  ; 
and  among  its  points  of   historical  interest  is  the  marble 
tablet    upon    the    fa9ade,  inscribed   in  letters   of   gold,   in 
memory  of  the  British  Legion,  the  English  and  Irish  who 
aided  Bolivar  and  Colombia  to  throw  off  the  dominion  of 
Spain  a  hundred  years  ago.     The  number  of  educational 
institutions  include  the  university,  three  endowed  colleges, 
the  national  academy,   the  military  school,   the  school  of 
chemistry  and  mineralogy,  the  public  library  \^dth  50,000 
volumes  ;   and  there  is  an  observatory,  museum,  mint,  and 
botanical  garden.     Bogota  has  jealously  guarded  a  reputa- 
tion, to  a  certain  extent  self-awarded,  iDut  not  undeserved, 
and  dating  from  colonial  times,  for  being  a  centre  of  learn- 
ing and  literature,    and  has  been  called  the    "Athens  of 


COLOMBIA  AND  VENEZUELA  347 

South  America."  The  Spaniard  has  always  had  the  poetic 
faculty  within  him,  and  a  native  love  for  art  and  literature 
to  a  degree  never  possessed  by  the  Anglo  or  Teutonic  peoples 
who  emigrate.  Natural  sciences  are  always  attractive 
to  the  upper  or  leisured  class  people  of  Latin  America  : 
music  and  poetry  fill  an  important  place  in  their  social  life, 
and  to  be  a  "  doctor  "  and  a  man  of  letters  and  leading  is  the 
spirit  which  in  Colombia,  as  among  her  neighbours,  or  per- 
haps more  markedly  so,  controls  the  higher  education.  Yet 
if  sentiment  runs  riot  at  times  it  is  a  good  faihng.  Bogotd 
has  embodied  these  qualities,  and  has  long  been  a  centre  of 
literary  refinement,  and  still  remains  so.  Yet  it  cannot 
be  shewn  that  anything  of  great  value  has  been  produced 
by  this  long  period  of  culture.  No  Latin  American  man 
of  letters  or  science  of  great  international  fame  has  yet 
issued  from  this  mountain  city.  Its  literary  and  learned 
attributes  are  of  value  to  the  continent  but  have  not 
extended  much  beyond  it. 

Bogota  was  the  centre  of  the  Chibchas  people  before  the 
Conquest,  and  after  its  founding  by  Quesada  in  1538  became 
the  capital  of  the  viceroyalty  of  New  Granada,  as  were 
Mexico  and  Lima  of  New  Spain  and  Peru.  The  city  still 
remains  one  of  the  least  accessible  in  Spanish  America,  and 
the  geographical  situation  is  not  favourable  to  any  extensive 
industrial  development,  situated  as  it  is  upon  a  shelf  of  the 
Cordillera.  Communication  with  the  coast  is  obtained  by  a 
combination  of  railway  and  river. 

The  population  of  Colombia  cannot  be  definitely  enumer- 
ated, as  there  are  no  estimates  of  births  and  deaths  of  any 
exact  statistical  value.  The  frequent  civil  wars  which  have 
marked  the  history  of  the  country  have  resulted  in  much 
loss  of  life  among  the  male  population  ;  and  the  abandon- 
ment of  their  homes,  and  the  baffling  of  the  authorities  by 
the  young  men  in  the  desire  to  escape  military  service, 
have  rendered  the  enumeration  of  the  people  in  census-taking 
difficult.  This  evasion  of  the  authorities  does  not  neces- 
sarily indicate  a  lack  of  patriotism  on  the  part  of  the  inhabi- 
tants, but  is  a  natural  protest  against  being  impressed  into 
military  service  by  more  or  less  irresponsible  revolutionary 


348  CENTRAL   AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

factions,  and  to  suffer  in  causes  which  are  of  neither  indi- 
vidual nor  national  value.  Due  to  these  conditions,  and  the 
poverty  of  the  lower  classes,  the  increase  of  the  population 
of  the  country  cannot  have  been  more  than  i  per  cent,  since 
the  census  of  1871,  which  gave  somewhat  under  3,000,000 
inhabitants.  Of  the  approximate  figure  of  4,300,000, 
assumed  as  the  present  population,  10  per  cent,  are  classed 
as  of  white  race,  40  per  cent,  mestizos,  15  per  cent.  Indians, 
and  35  per  cent,  negroes  and  mixtures  of  negroes  with  other 
races,  or  Zambos,  as  the  result  of  the  miscegenation  of  the 
African  and  the  aboriginal  is  termed  in  Latin  America. 
The  proximity  of  the  Colombian  ports  to  the  West  Indies, 
and  to  Colon  and  Panama,  explains  the  high  percentage  of 
negroes  in  the  republic.  The  small  amount  of  European 
immigration  accounts  for  the  large  mestizo  element,  and 
unless  changes  occur  this  element  it  is,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
other  Andean  republics,  that  must  in  the  future  dominate 
the  character  of  the  Colombian  nation.  The  white,  ruling 
class  of  Colombia,  like  that  of  Ecuador  and  Chile,  and  to  a 
lesser  extent  of  the  other  mountain  republics,  is  chiefly 
composed  of  descendants  of  the  Spanish  colonists  of  early 
times.  They  settled  in  the  highlands  rather  than  in  the 
hot  and  unhealthy  coast  districts,  and  the  resulting  isolation 
has  preserved  the  characteristics  of  race,  manners,  and 
language  of  their  ancestors  in  a  more  marked  degree  than 
in  any  other  Latin  American  country.  The  upper  class  of 
Colombians  are  a  high-spirited  and  intelligent  people,  with 
the  virtues  and  failings  of  their  Iberian  ancestors  strongly 
marked.  They  entertain  a  high  opinion  of  their  own  country 
and  character,  but  are  somewhat  blind  to  its  defects,  and 
to  the  backward  condition  which  the  discreditable  political 
strife  and  prolonged  misrule  has  brought  about.  The  poorer 
middle  class  suffers  considerably  from  the  necessity  to  keep 
up  appearances  in  the  midst  of  comparative  poverty — a 
condition  common  to  most  Latin  American  countries. 

Nearly  all  the  privileges  and  power  of  civic  rule  and 
political  domination  are  in  the  hands  of  the  upper  class, 
but  social  barriers  between  them  and  the  mestizo  class 
are  not  nearly  as  strong  as  in  Ecuador  and  Chile.     This 


COLOMBIA  AND   VENEZUELA  349 

upper  class  has  very  literally  followed  out  the  old  Spanish 
mandate  that  the  white  colonist  should  not  engage  in  manual 
labour,  as  being  derogatory  to  the  standing  of  the  caballero, 
or  gentleman,  and  they  do  no  labour  with  their  hands  ; 
all  such  work  being  delegated  to  the  mestizos  and  Indians. 
Colombian  society  is  thus  very  strongly  divided  into  an 
aristocratic  and  a  serving  class.  The  mestizo  people  have 
sturdy,  patient  qualities  which  they  inherit  from  the  Indian 
side  of  their  parentage  ;  and  as  elsewhere  in  the  Andean 
republics,  they  constitute  the  artisan  and  small  shopkeeper 
class  and  fill  the  positions  of  servants  and  day  labourers, 
according  to  their  rank  and  resources.  They  are  more 
industrious  than  their  class  in  some  of  the  neighbouring 
republics,  and  are  growing  in  numbers  more  rapidly  than 
any  other  part  of  the  population,  and  doubtless  will  assi- 
milate the  other  elements  in  time.  There  are  many  educated 
merchants  and  successful  business  men  among  the  mestizo 
class  in  Colombia,  as  well  as  a  professional  element,  and  no 
obstacle  exists  to  their  association  with  the  whites.  In  the 
rural  districts  the  mestizos  are  small  farmers,  and  active 
in  pastoral  industries.  The  Indians,  as  in  Peru,  Bolivia, 
and  Chile,  are  of  two  classes  :  the  Hispanicised  people  of 
the  highlands,  who  follow  the  Roman  Catholic  teaching, 
and  who  merge  into  the  mestizo  race,  so  forming  the  usual 
Latin  American  type  ;  and  the  uncivilised  Indians,  number- 
ing about  120,000.  The  tribes  composing  these  infielcs 
speak  some  twenty-seven  different  languages,  and  they 
include  descendants  of  the  Inca-controlled  people  of  Peru, 
and  of  the  Aztec  races  of  Mexico  ;  Colombia  having  possibly 
formed  in  the  past  a  meeting  point  between  the  two  old 
civilisations  of  America.  The  early  people  of  Colombia 
were  partly  civilised,  and  used  gold  discs  as  monetary 
currency.  The  great  Carib  stock,  the  Indians  upon  the 
seaboard  of  the  Caribbean  sea  in  Colombia,  has  some  affinity 
with  the  tribes  of  Brazil.  Some  of  the  wild  tribes  refuse 
to  come  under  the  control  of  the  republic,  and  are  still  a 
source  of  danger  to  travellers  and  settlers  in  certain  districts. 
The  negroes  are  found  principally  in  the  hot  lowlands  of 
the  coast,  after  the  manner  of  their  kind,  where  tropical 


350  C:ENTRAL  and  south  AMERICA 

food  products  cost  little  ;  and  they  are  grouped  principally 
in  the  seaports  of  Barranquilla  and  Cartagena. 

Notwithstanding  the  pretensions  of  Colombia  to  be  a 
literary  centre,  90  percent,  of  the  population  are  illiterate. 
Until  recently  there  were  very  few  schools  and  colleges 
and  no  efficient  educational  system.  This  backwardness 
was  due  partly  to  long  political  disorder,  and  partly  to  the 
apathy  and  opposition  of  the  church  ;  and  except  in  the 
larger  towns  educational  facilities  were  very  meagre.  The 
war  of  1899-1903  was  responsible  for  the  disordered  con- 
dition of  education  in  large  part,  as  for  other  serious  defects 
in  the  social  system  of  the  republic,  including  that  of  the 
retrograde  condition  of  agriculture.  Bogota  and  Medellin 
possess  universities,  the  former  with  faculties  of  philosophy 
and  letters,  jurisprudence  and  political  science,  natural 
science  and  medicines,  and  mathematics  and  engineering, 
but  these  became  disorganised  by  the  war.  The  educa- 
tional reform  programme,  of  normal  schools  for  teachers, 
and  agricultural  and  technical  schools  for  the  better  develop- 
ment of  the  resources  of  the  country,  is  under  the  control 
of  the  minister  of  instruction.  The  secondary  schools 
which  receive  state  aid  are  in  charge  of  religious  bodies  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  church.  The  school  and  college 
attendance  in  1906  aggregated  219,000,  a  fourth  of  whom 
were  in  Antioquia,  where  the  white  people  predominate  ; 
12,800  in  the  federal  districts  and  Bogota,  where  the  mestizo 
element  is  numerous,  and  5,000  in  the  department  of 
Atlantico,  including  Barranquilla,  where  the  negro  element 
preponderates.  Primary  instruction  is  free,  but  not  com- 
pulsory, and  has  not  extended  much  beyond  the  large  towns. 

The  influence  of  the  Roman  Catholic  church  with  all 
classes  in  Colombia  is  almost  unquestioned,  and  it  is  largely 
exercised  in  educational  matters.  Unlike  those  of  her  sister 
repubhcs,  the  constitution  of  Colombia  does  not  prohibit 
the  exercise  of  other  forms  of  worship,  any  such  not  contrary 
to  Christian  morals  or  the  law  being  permitted.  The 
number  of  non-Catholics,  however,  is  small,  comprising 
practically  only  the  foreign  residents  ;  with  a  Protestant 
church  at  Bogota.   The  greater  toleration  in  religious  matters 


COLOMBIA  AND   VENEZUELA 


351 


in  Colombia  has  been  wrought  of  long  struggles  between 
hberals  and  churchmen.  The  church  at  one  time  completely 
lost  its  influence  politically  over  the  government,  and  was 
disestabhshed  and  its  property  confiscated  and  the  clergy 
disenfranchised ;  but  its  rights  were  restored  in  1866. 
The  masses  of  the  people,  however,  had  always  remained 
loyal  to  the  church,  whose  influence  among  them  the  liberal 
upper  element  could  not  destroy,  for  in  the  Latin  American 
countries  generally  the  hold  of  the  church  is  strong  upon 
the  ignorant  classes.  But  the  church  learned  by  experience, 
and  in  1886  the  archbishop  of  Bogota  issued  an  edict 
warning  priests  not  to  enter  into  political  partisanship.  There 
are  ten  bishops  and  eight  vicars-general  in  Colombia,  with 
about  2,200  priests. 

Colombia  is  divided  into  fifteen  departments,  a  federal 
district  and  four  territories,  which  with  their  areas  and 
population  according  to  the  last  official  estimate  were  as 
follows : 


Department. 

Area. 

Population. 

Capital. 

Popolation 

Square  miles. 

Antioquia 

24,400 

750,000 

Medillin 

60,000 

Atlantico 

1,080 

104,700 

Barranquilla 

40,000 

Bolivar 

23.940 

250,000 

Cartagena 

14,000 

Boyaca 

4.630 

350,000 

Tunfa 

10,000 

Caldas 

7,920 

150,000 

Manizales 

20,000 

Cauca 

26,030 

400,000 

Popayan 

10,000 

Cundinamarca 

5,060 

225,000 

Facatativa 

12,000 

Galan 

6,950 

300,000 

San  Gil 

15,000 

Huila 

8,690 

150,000 

Neiva 

10,000 

Maj?dalena 

20,460 

100,000 

Santa  Marta 

6,000 

Narino 

10,040 

200,000 

Pasto 

6,000 

Quesada 

2,900 

300,000 

Zipaquira 

12,000 

Santander 

11,970 

300,000 

Bucarmanga 

20,000 

Tolima 

10,900 

200,000 

Ibaqu^ 

12,000 

Tundama 

2.390 

300,000 

Santa  Rosa 

6,000 

Federal  District 

200,000 

Bogata 

120,000 

Intendencias 

(4) 

277,620 

The  government  of  Colombia  is  that  of  a  centrahsed 
republic.  The  government  is  divided  into  the  three  co- 
ordinated branches  of  Legislative,  Executive,  and  Judicial, 
the  first  embodying  the  president  and  a  cabinet  of  six 
ministers,  and  the  second  the  senate  and  chamber  of  deputies. 
The  senate  is  composed  of  forty-eight  members,  three  for  each 


352  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH  AMERICA 

department,  and  the  arrangement  is  such  that  the  president 
practically  controls  the  choice  of  senators.  There  are 
sixty-seven  deputies,  elected  by  popular  suffrage,  on  the 
basis  of  one  representative  for  each  50,000  of  the  popula- 
tion. The  president,  under  the  Colombian  constitution,  has 
exceptional  power  to  deal  with  all  administrative  matters, 
but  doubtless  these  will  be  modified.  The  judicial  branch 
consists  in  the  supreme  court  at  Bogota,  and  a  superior 
court  in  each  judicial  district.  The  departments  are  adminis- 
tered by  governors,  and  exercise  a  restricted  local  power 
assisted  by  a  council ;  and  there  are  municipal  councils  in 
the  larger  towns. 

The  topographical  formation  of  Colombia  has  rendered 
difficult  the  development  of  means  of  communication.  High 
ridges  and  deep  valleys  separate  the  centres  of  production 
from  each  other  ;  and  swampy  lowlands,  often  unhealthy, 
cut  off  the  interior  from  the  Atlantic  coast,  whilst  the  Pacific 
slope  is  extremely  rugged. 

The  main  natural  highway  of  Colombia  is  that  of  the 
Magdalena  river,  which,  with  its  branches,  traverses  the 
best  part  of  the  repubhc,  flowing  through  the  great  western 
valleys  of  the  Andes  and  falling  into  the  Caribbean  sea. 
The  lower  part  of  the  Magdalena  is  served  by  light-draft 
steel  steamers  of  stern  wheel  type  ;  and  although  subject 
to  shallows  and  obstacles  to  navigation,  and  to  periodical 
changes  of  channel  in  certain  places,  the  river  is  navigable 
for  steamers  for  560  miles  from  its  mouth,  to  within  a  short 
distance  of  Honda  ;  and  for  ninety-three  miles  above  the 
rapids  near  to  that  town  ;  to  Giradot,  for  the  railway  for 
Bogota ;  and  at  high  water  to  Neiva,  100  miles  beyond. 
The  Cauca  river,  a  branch  of  the  Magdalena,  is  navigable 
for  two  stretches  of  200  miles,  interrupted  by  rapids.  The 
upper  valley  of  the  Cauca  is  a  fine  fertile  region,  but  isolated 
from  the  Caribbean  sea  and  the  Atlantic  by  the  difficult 
country  cut  through  by  the  Cauca  river,  and  its  best  outlet 
is  to  the  Pacific  seaport  of  Buenaventura,  by  means  of  the 
railway  which  has  been  recently  completed.  The  upper 
Magdalena  serves  a  rich  and  important  district,  containing 
cocoa  plantations  and  cattle  farms  ;   and  rubber  and  coffee 


COLOMBIA  AND  VENEZUELA  353 

are  produced.  There  are  also  some  deposits  of  petroleum 
and  asphalt  in  the  region.  The  principal  river  port  of  this 
elevated  region  is  Giradot,  the  centre  of  the  coffee-growing 
district,  and  this  is  the  terminus  of  the  railway  to  Bogota. 
The  river  system  of  the  Magdalena  is  capable  of  improve- 
ment and  increased  traffic,  but  the  government  has  failed, 
so  far,  to  effect  this ;  notwithstanding  the  commercial 
development  which  might  follow  upon  the  work.  The  river 
dues  yield  more  than  £30,000  annually,  and  the  canalisation 
of  the  waterway  where  necessary  should  be  an  undertaking 
commercially  profitable,  and  would  tend  to  avoid  the 
serious  losses  due  to  low  water  periods  caused  by  drought, 
which  of  late  years  have  been  especially  marked. 

The  Magdalena  is  the  haunt  of  crocodiles,  which  live  in 
its  muddy  waters  and  upon  the  shoals  and  banks  in  great 
profusion.  Three  kinds  are  specially  noted  on  this  river, 
the  babilla,  not  generally  more  than  five  feet  long,  with  a 
short  blunt  head,  numerous  teeth  and  yellow  belly,  but  with 
a  skin  worthless  commercially  :  the  caiman  de  aguja,  or 
needle-snouted  alligator,  with  greenish  back  and  yellow 
belly,  large  teeth  of  a  beautiful  white  ivory,  at  times  one  and 
a  half  inches  in  diameter  and  five  inches  long,  with  a  skin 
half  an  inch  thick  and  eighty  or  ninety  square  feet  in  area  ; 
the  reptile  measuring  twenty-four  feet  in  length,  with  a 
girth  of  two  yards  ;  and  the  caiman  porro,  a  thick,  short- 
headed  alligator,  not  over  ten  feet  long,  with  a  pliable 
skin  of  commercial  value.  These  two  last  kinds  exist  in 
inexhaustible  quantities  ;  as  many  as  150  have  been  counted 
basking  in  the  sun  on  a  single  sandy  beach,  and  whatever 
slaughter  of  these  reptiles  be  made  their  extinction  seems 
difficult,  as  every  full-grown  female  lays,  it  has  been  stated, 
no  less  than  100  eggs  every  year.  "  The  popular  belief  that 
the  parent  alligators  eat  their  young  probably  originated 
from  the  fact  that  the  solicitous  mother  will  help  the  newly 
born  little  animals  to  swim  by  opening  her  mouth,  so  that 
they  can  easily  climb  up  on  the  lower  jaw  and  use  the  mandible 
as  a  diving  stand. ' '  *  There  is  not  a  more  ferocious  and  j  calous 
animal  in  defending  its  offspring  than  the  female  alligator. 

•  An  article  in  The  Times  South  American  Supplement. 

Z 


354  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 

The  idea  of  attempted  extermination  even  of  these  repugnant 
animals  seems  to  demand  protest.  There  are  two  seasons  in 
the  year  when  Colombian  fishermen  catch  the  alligator  in 
quantities  on  the  Magdalena— from  December  to  April  and 
in  July  and  August.  During  these  rainless  months  the  river 
goes  down  and  with  it  the  adjacent  branches  and  tributaries, 
draining  out  the  great  alluvial  plains  bordering  the  main 
stream  on  both  sides. 

The  other  river  systems  of  Colombia  are  of  much  interest 
hydrographically.  The  San  Juan,  which  empties  into  the 
Pacific  coast,  carrying  a  large  volume  of  water  due  to  the 
heavy  rainfall  of  the  western  slope  of  the  Andes  in  Colombia, 
has,  with  its  tributaries,  some  300  miles  of  navigable  channel, 
with  about  seven  or  eight  feet  of  water  at  the  bar.  In  its 
upper  portion  it  flows  so  near  the  Atrato,  a  river  which 
discharges  on  the  Caribbean  side  of  the  Isthmus  of  Panama, 
that,  according  to  a  survey  made  early  last  century,  a  canal 
of  400  yards'  length  which  might  be  cut  between  the 
water-parting  of  the  two  rivers,  with  a  depth  of  only 
seventy  feet,  would  give  through  communication  by  water 
from  the  Pacific  to  the  Atlantic  side  of  the  continent. 
Another  remarkable  stream  on  the  Pacific  slope  is  the  Patia, 
flowing  through  the  Minima  gorge,  cut  down  perpendicularly 
to  a  depth  of  1,676  feet.  An  affluent  of  this  river  is  spanned 
by  a  natural  stone  arch,  known  as  the  "  Incas  Bridge." 
and  the  two  topographical  features  have  been  described  as 
one  of  the  wonders  of  the  world.  The  third  system  of 
Colombian  rivers  is  formed  by  the  tributaries  of  the  Orinoco 
and  Amazon  ;  and  some  of  these  are  little  known,  traversing 
in  some  cases  the  most  savage  and  unexplored  territory 
in  South  America.  The  chief  tributaries  of  the  Orinoco 
are  the  Guaviare,  the  Vichada,  and  the  Meta,  described 
in  Venezuela.  The  latter  is  navigated  by  steamers.  Of  the 
Amazon  system  in  Colombia  the  Napo,  the  Yapura,  and  the 
Putumayo  are  the  principal.  The  last  named  in  its  lower 
district  is  claimed  both  by  Colombia  and  Peru,  and  was  the 
scene  of  the  atrocities  connected  with  rubber-gathering, 
which  so  recently  aroused  the  indignation  of  the  civilised 
world.     This  river  is  described  elsewhere,   as  is  the  Rio 


COLOMBIA    AND   VENEZUELA  355 

Negro,  one  of  the  largest  tributaries  of  the  Amazon,  which 
also  has  its  rise  in  Colombia. 

The  railways  of  Colombia  consist  in  short,  isolated  lines 
which  run  inland  from  coast  ports,  or  connect  inland  places 
with  the  Magdalena  river.  There  is  no  main  system  of 
linked  Hnes  joining  the  coast  with  the  cities  of  the  interior  ; 
and  this  is  due  to  the  topographical  formation  of  the  country, 
which  has  prevented  access  to  the  plateau  regions  so  far. 
Bogata  is  connected  with  the  Magdalena  at  Giradot  by  a  line 
105  miles  long,  which  was  completed  in  1906  ;  prior  to  which 
the  capital  had  no  direct  means  of  communication  with  the 
outside  world  beyond  the  mountain  roads.  Around  the 
Honda  rapids  on  the  Magdalena,  continuing  the  link  of 
communication,  runs  a  hue  twenty  and  a  half  miles  long  ; 
and  near  the  mouth  of  the  river  is  a  line  from  Calainan  to 
Cartagena,  sixty-five  miles  long,  and  one  from  Barranquilla 
to  Puerto  Colombia,  of  seventeen  and  a  half  miles.  From 
Puerto  Berrio,  on  the  Magdalena,  a  line  partly  completed, 
seventy-eight  miles  long,  runs  to  Medellin,  the  second 
important  city  of  the  republic.  There  are  several  short 
lines  connecting  with  the  river  and  the  main  railways. 
On  the  Caribbean  coast,  are  two  lines  :  one  from  Circuta  to 
Villamazon,  forty-three  and  a  half  miles  long,  on  the  Zulia 
river,  running  into  the  gulf  of  Maracaibo  ;  and  the  other 
the  Santa  Marta  railway,  forty-one  and  a  half  miles,  both 
serving  the  banana  and  coffee-growing  districts.  On  the 
Pacific  coast  the  only  line  is  that  from  Cah,  the  important 
town  of  16,000  inhabitants  in  the  beautiful  Cauca  valley, 
upon  the  river  of  that  name,  to  Buenaventura,  the  principal 
seaport  on  the  Pacific  littoral  of  Colombia.  The  total 
length  of  the  Colombian  railways  is  less  than  500  miles,  but 
considerable  extensions  are  contemplated  ;  and  concessions 
have  been  granted  for  more  than  1,500  miles,  principally 
to  British  capitalists. 

The  majority  of  the  population  of  Colombia  are  occupied 
in  agriculture  and  allied  industries.  Agriculture  in  Colombia 
was  greatly  injured  by  the  civil  wars,  especially  that  of  1899 
to  1903,  when,  due  to  revolutionary  conflicts,  the  able- 
bodied  population  lost  many  workers,  who  were  sacrificed 


356  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

in  those  disorders.  These  fratricidal  struggles  of  Colombian 
politicians  have  left  their  mark  upon  the  republic  ;  such  a 
mark  as  only  time  can  eradicate. 

The  principal  article  of  produce  is  coffee,  and  this  has 
earned  a  reputation  for  good  quality  ;  although  the  prices, 
as  in  all  coffee-producing  countries,  are  more  or  less  dominated 
by  the  Brazilian  output.  Cotton,  sugar,  and  cocoa  are 
produced  on  a  relatively  small  scale  for  home  consumption, 
but  lands  suitable  for  their  cultivation  are  extensive,  and 
they  might  be  greatly  increased  under  more  prosperous 
conditions.  As  regards  cotton  and  sugar  manufacture, 
these  are  not  sufficient  for  domestic  wants.  Rum  from  the 
sugar-cane  is  manufactured,  and  consumed  among  the 
Indians  and  mestizos,  largely  to  their  detriment,  as  in  the 
other  Andean  countries.  Bananas  and  cocoanuts  have  been 
grown  for  export  of  recent  years,  due  to  the  operations  of  a 
North  American  fruit  company.  All  kinds  of  fruits  are 
grown,  although  in  comparatively  small  quantities,  for  home 
consumption.  The  variations  of  temperature  due  to  alti- 
tude permit  the  cultivation  of  these  in  almost  every  species. 
Cedar,  mahogany,  fibres,  and  ivory  nuts,  or  "  tagua,"  are 
other  products  of  value.  Potatoes  are  a  valuable  article 
of  native  food,  and  the  wild  variety  of  the  Colombian  high- 
lands is  held  to  be  the  original  of  the  potato  which  now  is 
cultivated  throughout  the  world  ;  and  which  must  have 
been  evolved  from  its  wild  form  by  the  ancient  Incas  and 
others  of  South  America.  On  the  flooded  lowlands  rice  is 
grown  to  a  small  extent,  although  an  article  of  national 
consumption.  Colombian  tobacco  is  considered  almost 
the  equal  of  the  Havana  leaf  and  might  be  far  more  exten- 
sively cultivated.  The  augmentation  of  the  agricultural 
industries,  however,  depends  upon  an  increase  of  labour, 
rather  than  capital. 

It  is  considered  that  sugar  might  be  grown,  not  only  to 
meet  the  entire  local  demands,  but  also  to  supply  the  central 
mills,  several  of  which  have  been  erected  recently,  and  so 
to  grind  for  export.  Refined  sugar  and  German  beet  sugar 
are  imported  in  large  quantities,  notwithstanding  very 
high  tariff  duties,  but  they  are  consumed  mainly  by  the 


COLOMBIA  AND  VENEZUELA  357 

wealthier  classes.  A  future  export  product  should  be  in 
cacao,  the  chocolate  bean.  The  planters  of  Colombia  have 
never  paid  much  attention  to  the  cacao  crop,  notwithstanding 
the  extensive  moist  lowlands  suitable  for  its  cultivation. 
At  times  the  native  product  has  not  been  equal  to  the  home 
demand,  which  is  considerable,  and  foreign  chocolate  has 
been  imported.  It  is  stated  that  there  is  a  wild  cacao  with 
small  beans,  which  are  very  rich  in  oil,  and  its  exploitation 
might  furnish  the  basis  of  a  good  export  trade.  Cotton 
is  one  of  the  crops  which  is  still  in  its  infancy,  and  until 
recently  no  systematic  cultivation  has  been  attempted. 
Measures  taken  by  the  government  to  secure  scientific 
growing  give  good  promise  of  making  cotton  a  leading 
export  crop  ;  but  this  will  take  years,  and  possibly  will 
require  colonisation,  since  labour  is  not  abundant.  There 
is  no  probability  that  cotton  itself  will  be  manufactured  in 
the  country  yet,  in  quantities  to  supply  the  home  demand. 

Cedar,  mahogany,  and  other  cabinet  woods  have  been 
exported  for  many  years,  and  this  trade  is  not  likely  to 
decline,  for  as  yet  it  cannot  be  said  that  the  timber  resources 
have  been  fully  exploited.  Large  forest  areas  have  been 
left  untouched  from  lack  of  transport  facilities,  but  where 
these  have  been  provided,  the  timber  exports  should  form 
a  leading  feature  in  the  foreign  trade.  The  list  of  fibres 
which  are  converted  to  household  uses,  and  which  have  a 
commercial  value,  is  a  long  one.  It  includes  the  maguey, 
and  various  forms  of  henequen.  In  this  connection  an  increase 
in  the  shipment  of  straw  hats  of  a  fine  quality  is  becoming 
noticeable.  Among  tropical  plants,  bananas  and  cocoa- 
nuts  are  the  only  kinds  exported  in  quantities  sufficient  to 
give  them  a  place  in  the  trade  returns.  A  staple  export, 
and  a  most  valuable  one,  comprises  cattle  and  hides.  While 
there  are  fine  pasture  ranges  in  the  interior,  and  unusually 
good  cattle  are  raised,  the  cost  of  transport  makes  their 
exportation  impracticable,  and  the  animals  which  are  shipped 
come  from  the  districts  contiguous  to  the  Caribbean,  the 
lower  Magdalena,  and  the  Sinu  river.  But  the  hides 
exported  are  from  all  sections  of  the  country,  and  constitute 
one  of  the  principal  sources  of  income. 


358  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 

The  flora  of  Colombia  is  rich,  and  the  horticultural  world 
owes  most  of  its  beautiful  orchids  to  the  deep  recesses  of 
the  unexplored  river  and  forest  regions  of  the  republic ; 
and  of  Venezuela.  In  bird,  insect,  and  reptile  life,  the 
country  is  second  only  to  Brazil. 

In  mineral  wealth,  Colombia  is  a  richly  endowed  country. 
It  has  been  calculated  that  the  republic,  including  Panama, 
has  produced  since  the  advent  of  the  Spaniards  nearly 
£128,000,000  in  gold,  and  nearly  £6,000,000  in  silver. 
Three-quarters  of  the  gold  came  from  the  alluvial  deposits 
and  placer  mines,  mainly  of  the  Andean  regions  ;  but  the 
gold  product  of  past  centuries  has  mainly  been  the  result 
of  slavery  and  forced  labour,  and  there  was  a  considerable 
diminution  in  the  output  when  slavery  was  abolished  in 
Colombia.  In  the  mountain  ranges  of  the  Cauca  and  Mag- 
dalena  rivers  there  are  thousands  of  square  miles  of  territory 
containing  gold-bearing  gravels  and  reefs.  The  depart- 
ment of  Antioquia  possesses  various  mines  in  which  British 
and  American  capital  is  employed,  both  in  quartz  mining 
and  in  dredging,  and  the  output  of  gold  for  1911  was 
3,000,000  dollars.  Many  of  the  gold-bearing  streams  do  not 
offer  conditions  for  profitable  working  ;  and  the  development 
of  quartz-gold  mining  depends  for  commercial  success  upon 
means  of  communication.  In  the  district  of  Tolima  com- 
munications in  this  respect  are  being  improved.  Platinum 
accompanies  the  gold  gravels  often,  and  is  regularly  exported, 
and  platinum  mining  is  capable  of  development.  Colombia 
is  second  to  Russia  in  the  world's  output  of  this  valuable 
metal. 

The  precious  metals  have  been  mined  in  Colombia  for 
centuries  ;  the  viceroyalty  having  ranked  with  the  foremost 
gold-producing  countries  of  the  world.  It  can  hardly  be 
said  that  the  old  mines  which  the  Spanish  worked  have  been 
exhausted,  for  they  still  continue  to  produce,  but  chiefly 
in  proportion  as  new  machinery  and  modern  methods  are 
employed.  There  are  also  the  possibilities,  always  present 
in  a  mineral  region,  of  new  discoveries  ;  but  practical  miners 
prefer  to  look  for  immediate  returns  in  mines  already 
known.   Improved  means  of  transport  are  rendering  some  of 


COLOMBIA  AND   VENEZUELA  359 

the  mines  more  accessible  and  profitable.  Especially 
famous  are  the  emerald  mines  of  Colombia,  in  particular 
those  of  Muzo,  some  miles  from  Bogota,  the  capital.  These 
are  controlled  absolutely  by  the  state,  but  have  recently 
been  leased  to  an  English  syndicate,  which  agrees  to  sell  at 
least  £250,000  worth  of  stones  each  year  for  twenty  years. 
The  fine  quality  of  product  is  still  limited  to  a  few  mines, 
notwithstanding  that  considerable  capital  has  been  expended 
in  working  other  deposits.  The  future  of  the  precious 
metals  in  Colombia,  particularly  of  gold  and  silver,  is  regarded 
as  encouraging.  Systematic  methods  are  now  employed 
by  groups  of  capitaHsts,  who  make  mining  a  business,  and, 
instead  of  prospecting  at  haphazard,  they  carefully  deter- 
mine their  ground  and  then  exploit  it  fully.  Several  groups 
of  American  and  English  capitalists  are  engaged  in  develop- 
ment work  of  this  kind.  In  some  departments,  notably 
Antioquia,  the  mineral  industry  is  well  established,  and  some 
of  the  gold  deposits  are  of  great  importance.  It  is  probable 
that  large  areas  of  the  Pacific  coast  of  Colombia  are  formed  of 
gold-bearing  alluvium,  and  with  more  effective  methods  new 
mining  centres  may  be  established.  In  the  department  of 
Narifio  gold  deposits  are  being  profitably  worked,  but  in  the 
central  Cordillera  region  exploration  has  scarcely  yet  been 
commenced.  Abundant  deposits  of  coal,  iron,  copper,  lead, 
and  cinnabar  are  known  to  exist.  A  great  gold-bearing 
region  is  found  in  the  lofty  Cordilleras  of  the  Choco  and 
Antioquia  provinces,  and  in  the  mountain  ranges  that 
separate  the  Cauca  and  Magdalena  rivers.  In  this  area 
of  many  thousands  of  square  miles,  wherever  there  is  gravel 
there  is  gold,  and  in  the  mountains,  where  the  rock  has  been 
laid  bare,  veins  are  found  freely.  Many  hundreds  of  miles 
of  this  territory  have  not  been  explored,  except  by  Indians. 
The  Choco  placer  region  contains  more  gold-bearing  territory 
than  California  and  New  Zealand  combined,  but  only  practi- 
cal work  can  prove  whether  these  great  reputed  riches  can 
be  made  of  commercial  value,  or  whether  they  are  only  for 
the  individual  miner. 

Possibly  in  the  future  the  baser  metals  and  minerals  will 
prove  a  more  profitable  source  of  revenue  than  the  precious 


36o  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH   AMERICA 

metals.  The  existence  of  coal  in  widely  separated  regions 
is  fully  determined.  The  mineral  is  found  nearly  every- 
where on  the  Cordilleras  ;  lignite  on  the  coast,  and 
coking  and  steam  coal  in  the  interior.  Deposits  have 
recently  been  discovered  between  the  Atrato  and  Loen 
rivers,  and  the  Colombian  coalfields  are  well  situated  to  take 
advantage  of  market  facilities,  which  may  become  available 
with  the  completion  of  the  Panama  canal.  Little  informa- 
tion about  the  country's  coal  deposits  is  available  yet  ;  the 
mines  which  have  been  opened  having  been  only  superficially 
worked  ;  but  it  is  considered  that  they  form  an  asset  of 
great  value. 

The  petroleum  deposits  of  Colombia  resemble  those  of  the 
Texas  oilfields.  The  oil  has  an  asphalte  base.  Natural 
petroleum  springs  are  frequent.  A  concession  has  been 
granted  for  a  term  of  thirty  years,  and  is  to  be  exploited  by 
British  capitalists,  for  the  operation  of  oil-refining  works  in  a 
specified  section  of  the  department  of  Santander,  within 
an  area  loo  miles  in  length  by  sixty  miles  in  width.  The 
concessionaires  agree  to  invest  in  one  or  more  refineries, 
within  a  period  of  five  years,  all  the  capital  which  may  be 
necessary  for  effective  working,  and  during  that  period  the 
government  agrees  to  admit,  duty  free,  all  necessary 
materials.  Iron  ores  are  abundant  in  the  republic,  and  the 
departments  of  Antioquia,  Cauca,  Tolima,  Boyaca,  and 
Cundinamarca  contain  veins  of  copper  ore.  Much  of  this 
ore  is  of  high  grade,  but  owing  to  lack  of  facilities  of  trans- 
port the  deposits,  except  in  rare  instances,  remain  unworked, 
and  the  iron  ore  which  exists  in  the  interior  does  not  give 
promise  of  early  development  on  a  large  scale.  Where  the 
coal  and  the  ore  lie  close  together  the  growth  of  the  iron 
and  steel  industries  in  Colombia  might  be  brought  about. 

As  the  control  of  nearly  all  the  railways  which  are  being 
extended  in  Colombia  is  in  the  hands  of  British  companies, 
purchases  of  railway  material  are  made  from  the  United 
Kingdom.  On  the  lines  controlled  by  the  government 
preference  is  shown  for  American  locomotives  and  equip- 
ments. From  the  topographical  features  of  the  country, 
railways  in  Colombia  will,  no  doubt,  require  in  the  future 


COLOMBIA  AND  VENEZUELA  361 

much  bridge  material.  In  machinery  and  farm  implements 
there  is  a  growing  demand.  American  manufacturers  are 
supplying  ploughs  and  harvesting  machinery,  and  American 
threshers  compete  with  English  ones  ;  but  in  hoes,  adzes, 
spades,  and  shovels,  the  British  and  German  have  the  bulk 
of  the  trade.  In  sugar  machinery  also  Europe  leads,  and 
nearly  all  the  installations  for  the  larger  mills  come  from 
England,  France,  and  Belgium.  Coffee  machinery  hitherto 
has  mainly  come  from  England  ;  but  recently  American 
manufacturers  are  obtaining  a  foothold.  In  the  event  of 
success  attending  the  movement  to  make  Colombia  a  cotton- 
growing  country,  a  market  for  cotton  ginning  and  other 
machinery  would  be  created.  The  sale  of  mining  machinery 
is  divided  between  England  and  the  United  States.  Mines 
owned  by  English  capitalists  generally  have  their  machinery 
supplied  by  the  United  Kingdom  ;  those  controlled  by 
Americans  exclusively  from  the  United  States. 

Of  the  British-controlled  enterprises  in  Colombia  some 
have  been  prosperous  and  others  unprofitable.  The  Carta- 
gena Railways  Company  and  the  Colombian  Navigation 
Company  have  had  a  chequered  and  difficult  financial  life. 
The  aggregate  capital  of  these  two  enterprises  is  nearly 
£1,250,000.  The  Colombian  Northern  railway  has  earned 
net  profits  since  1908  varying  from  112,550  dollars,  in 
Colombian  gold  currency,  to  150,000  dollars.  The  Colombian 
National  railway  has  suffered  by  reason  of  arrears  of 
payment  in  a  heavy  claim  against  the  government. 

The  financial  history  of  Colombia,  like  the  political 
past,  has  been  a  chequered  one.  The  republic  has  been 
known  abroad  in  financial  matters  unfavourably  through 
repeated  defaults  in  meeting  her  bonded  obligations.  As 
regards  the  public  revenues,  these  are  derived  from  duties 
on  imported  merchandise  in  the  main,  and  from  export 
duties  on  national  produce  and  royalties  on  various  matters 
of  home  manufacture,  and  state  monopolies.  The  revenue 
increases  slowly,  but  an  impoverished  people  cannot  yield 
much  to  increased  taxation.  The  value  of  the  Colombian 
imports  for  the  year  1920  was  approximately  $48,487,000 
and  the  exports  $79,029,000,  and  these  shewed  a  growth  over 


362  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH  AMERICA 

the   previous   year.     Financial  statistics   of   Colombia   are 
not  easily  obtained. 

THE  UNITED   STATES   OF   VENEZUELA 

Venezuela,  the  adjoining  and  companion  republic  to 
Colombia,  shares  with  that  country  the  commanding  posi- 
tion overlooking  the  Caribbean  sea.  Her  coast  is  the  portion 
of  the  South  American  continent  nearest  both  to  Europe  and 
the  United  States,  and  as  her  nearest  neighbours  the  republic 
has  both  the  British  and  the  Dutch  colonial  empires,  in 
the  three  Dutch  islands  of  Oruba,  Cura9ao,  and  Buen  Aire, 
lying  off  her  principal  seaports,  and  the  important  British 
island  of  Trinidad,  facing  the  natural  entrance  to  the  country, 
the  estuary  of  the  Orinoco  river.  Upon  her  eastern  side 
lies  British  Guiana,  and  Venezuela  thus  comes  more  into 
contact,  territorially,  with  a  European  element  than  any 
other  of  the  Latin  American  republics.  The  coast  of 
Venezuela  was  the  first  portion  of  the  mainland  sighted  by 
Columbus  ;  and  in  succession  it  was,  with  the  great  Antilles 
and  the  adjacent  seas,  the  theatre  of  operations  of  the 
French,  Dutch,  and  English  corsairs  of  the  sixteenth  century ; 
of  the  famous  buccaneers  of  the  Spanish  Main,  and  of  the 
smugglers  and  slave  traders  who,  in  the  eighteenth  century, 
set  at  nought  the  efforts  of  the  Spanish  government  to  abolish 
their  contraband  trade  enterprises.  Lastly  it  was  under 
Venezuelan  colours  that  the  British  Legion  under  Bolivar 
was  enlisted,  which  played  an  important  part  in  the  inde- 
pendence of  the  republics  of  Venezuela  and  Colombia. 
If  in  her  seaports  the  pirate  flag  has  often  flown,  the  banner 
of  independence  has  also  been  conspicuous.  Thus  history 
and  sea-power  have  greatly  influenced  the  character  and 
tradition  of  Venezuela,  and  the  truculent  foreign  policy 
of  recent  times  of  its  dictators  has  carried  on  the  sequence 
of  her  international  relations.  The  land  of  the  Orinoco, 
Venezuela  has  further  claims  to  the  interest  which  surrounds 
her  name  and  territory ;  nature  has  added  her  attractions 
to  tradition,  and  the  remote  tributaries  and  forests  of  the 
great  river  remain  one  of  the  least  known  fields  for  the 
pioneer  upon  the  continent  of  South  America. 


COLOMBIA   AND   VENEZUELA  363 

On  approaching  La  Guayra,  the  principal  seaport,  a  bold, 
high  rocky  wall  appears  to  rise  out  of  the  sea,  almost  sheer  ; 
a  granite  wall  a  mile  high,  cutting  off  the  interior  from  the 
coast,  and  the  main  entrance  to  the  repubUc  seems  forbidding 
and  uninviting  ;  it  is  in  marked  contrast  with  the  Colom- 
bian shores  to  the  west.  Yet,  beyond  those  stern,  rocky 
bulwarks  lies  one  of  the  most  attractive  cities  of  South 
America,  Caracas,  hidden  in  its  high  valley,  in  a  pocket 
of  the  hills,  a  beautiful  situation  surrounded  by  mountain 
peaks. 

The  railway  from  La  Guayra  to  Caracas,  ascends  this 
mountain  wall  of  the  maritime  Andes  with  a  difficult  track 
of  heavy  gradients,  some  twenty-four  miles  in  length,  and 
descends  to  Caracas,  which  lies  at  an  elevation  of  3,000  feet 
above  sea  level.  Due  to  its  considerable  elevation  above 
sea  level,  the  city,  though  lying  in  the  torrid  zone,  enjoys 
a  climate  which  may  be  described  as  a  "  continuous 
spring,"  free  ahke  from  the  cold  of  a  too  great  elevation 
above  sea  level,  and  the  sweltering  heat  of  tropic  low- 
lands. In  this  respect  Caracas  is  superior  to  the  towns 
of  the  Mexican  gulf  in  the  United  States.  The  situation 
of  Caracas  is  singularly  beautiful,  and  the  railway  may  be 
regarded  as  one  of  the  scenic  lines  of  the  world ;  passing 
along  the  face  of  the  mountain  like  a  creeper  against  a  wall ; 
and  from  the  summit  is  displayed,  far  below,  the  seaport  of 
La  Guayra,  and  the  Caribbean  sea.  The  distance  from  La 
Guayra  to  Caracas  in  a  straight  hne  is  about  seven  miles. 
The  town  is  an  old  one,  having  been  founded  by  the  Spaniards 
in  1567  on  the  site  of  an  Indian  village,  and  in  1819  it  was 
freed  from  Spanish  dominion  by  the  famous  BoHvar,  whose 
equestrian  statue  occupies  the  centre  of  the  fine  plaza 
bearing  his  name.  This  square  is  paved  with  mosaics  and 
festooned  with  electric  lights,  surrounded  by  shade  trees, 
and  the  evening  concerts  of  the  military  bands  attract 
the  populace,  after  the  customary  fashion  of  life  in  the 
Latin  American  cities.  Caracas  possesses  a  showy  federal 
capital  building,  a  national  theatre,  national  university, 
national  museum  with  some  famous  paintings,  and  other 
pubUc    institutions    of    note.     With    its    extreme    natural 


364  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 

beauty  and  the  artistic  disposition  and  construction  of  its 
streets  and  buildings,  Caracas  might  be  a  home  of  artistry  : 
and  its  attractive  suburbs,  with  their  luxurious  gardens,  and 
the  fine  new  boulevard  bear  out  the  environment.  An 
electric  tramway  traverses  the  city,  controlled  by  British 
capitalists,  and  motor  cars  are  freely  encountered  on  the 
cement -paved  streets,  Caracas  deserves  to  be  more  widely 
known,  and  to  enjoy  a  greater  prosperity. 

The  area  of  Venezuela  is  nearly  600,000  square  miles, 
according  to  the  national  claim,  but  elsewhere  is  assigned  as 
394,000  square  miles.  Upon  the  eastern  side  the  boundary 
is  with  British  Guiana ;  to  the  south  is  Brazil,  and  to  the 
west  Colombia.  The  coast  line  is  far  more  broken  than 
that  of  Colombia,  and  includes  the  great  gulfs  of  Venezuela 
and  Maracaibo,  and  the  delta  of  the  Orinoco,  and  other 
indentations.  On  an  air  hue  the  country  has  a  frontage 
of  about  800  miles  to  the  Caribbean  sea  and  Atlantic  ocean, 
but  the  length  of  the  coast  line  itself  is  much  greater,  being 
more  than  1,800  miles  long  in  the  aggregate.  The  surface 
of  the  country  is  broken  into  three  irregular  sections  by  the 
mountains,  the  principal  of  which  are  offshoots  of  the 
Andes,  which  traverse  it.  More  than  four-fifths  of  the  area 
of  the  republic  lies  within  the  basin  of  the  Orinoco,  the  great 
river  flowing  into  the  Atlantic  near  the  eastern  extremity 
of  the  country.  This  division  embodies  the  mountains  on 
its  northern  border,  and  the  great  forested  territories  in  the 
south  and  south-west.  The  mountainous  area  of  the  north- 
west and  north  falls  into  the  second  division,  and  the  Guiana 
highlands  into  a  third.  The  Andes  of  Colombia  enter 
Venezuela  in  the  west,  and  cross  the  country  to  the  coast  ; 
being  known  as  the  Sierra  Nevada  de  Merida,  whose 
highest  summit  is  15,420  feet  above  sea  level.  The  Mari- 
time Andes  stretch  east  and  west  along  the  coast,  and  the 
valley  between  these  ranges  is  the  most  densely  populated 
part  of  Venezuela.  East  and  south  of  this  region  the  country 
is  very  thinly  populated  and  almost  unknown.  It  com- 
prises the  vast  and  densely-wooded  mountainous  area  in  the 
south-east  and  south,  and  the  level  plains  between  the  Orinoco 
and    the    mountains.      These    vast    llanos    are    in    places 


COLOMBIA   AND   VENEZUELA  365 

a  veritable  sea  of  natural  grass  ;  in  others  wooded  ;  but  in 
the  districts  formerly  occupied  their  character  has  changed 
somewhat,  due  to  the  decline  of  stock  and  horse  raising. 
The  elevation  of  these  plains  is  about  400  feet  above  sea 
level,  and  their  surface  is  so  uniform  and  flat  that  they  are 
inundated  in  the  rainy  season  to  the  extent  of  thousands 
of  square  miles,  with  a  network  of  connecting  channels. 
The  region  of  the  delta  of  the  Orinoco,  and  that  of  the 
frontier  of  British  Guiana,  is  covered  with  thick  forests,  and 
inhabited  onh^  by  scattered  Indian  tribes. 

The  river  Orinoco  forms  the  most  striking  topographical 
feature  of  the  north-eastern  part  of  the  South  American 
continent,  and  is  the  third  of  the  vast  fluvial  systems, 
following  on  the  Amazon  and  the  River  Plata.  The 
Orinoco  is,  however,  of  a  less  commercial  value,  and  less 
frequented  than  the  great  waterway  of  the  Plate,  and 
approximates  more  to  the  nature  of  the  Amazon,  in  that 
it  is  still  partly  unexplored  and  mysterious,  shrouded  in 
forests,  and  the  haunt  of  the  wild  men  and  wild  animals  of 
the  tropic  zones.  The  imagination  of  explorers,  naturalists, 
and  others  has  always  been  captivated  by  this  grand  river. 
Columbus  wrote  to  the  Spanish  sovereigns  that  he  had 
discovered  one  of  the  great  streams  flowing  from  the 
"  Earthly  Paradise,"  and  he  named  two  of  its  sea-entrances 
the  Dragon's  Mouth  and  the  Serpent's  Mouth,  and  the 
great  island  close  upon  them  he  called  Trinidad,  upon  his 
discovery  of  it  in  1496.  After  that  time  other  early  voyagers 
explored  its  many  intricate  channels,  in  the  quest  of  El 
Dorado  or  for  commercial  purposes.  The  Orinoco  is  ap- 
proximately 1,500  miles  long,  to  which  the  Guaviare  branch 
adds  several  hundreds  more.  Of  the  436  tributaries,  four 
— the  Apure,  the  Arauco,  the  Meta,  and  the  Guaviare — are 
rivers  of  the  first  rank,  and  twenty-five  of  the  second, 
and  the  great  volume  of  waters  enters  the  Atlantic  through 
thirty-six  mouths,  of  which  six  are  broad  channels.  No 
accurate  map,  however,  exists  of  this  great  delta,  which 
opens  fan-shaped  to  the  sea.  The  Orinoco  is  navigable 
for  large  steamers  of  stern-wheel  type  throughout  the  year 
to  Ciudad  Bolivar,  a  town  on  its  right  bank,  some  375  miles 


366  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

from  the  mouth,  at  which  the  whole  trade  of  the  river  centres : 
a  place  of  some  12,000  inhabitants.  This  town  enjoys  a 
steamship  service  with  the  British  possession  of  Trinidad. 
Above  Ciudad  BoHvar  navigation  is  confined  to  small 
craft  throughout  the  year,  such  as  canoes ;  but  during  the 
rainy  season,  from  June  to  November,  larger  craft  can 
travel  up  the  main  stream  and  thence  up  the  Apure,  an 
affluent  coming  from  the  west,  formed  by  two  great  rivers, 
the  Uribante  and  Savare,  from  whose  confluence  the  length 
of  the  Apure  is  645  miles  ;  and  for  which  a  doubtful  claim 
has  been  made  that  560  miles  are  navigable.  Through  the 
vast  cattle  plains  or  llanos  the  Apure  runs  past  the  town  of 
San  Fernando,  and  is  navigable  in  a  very  variable  manner 
beyond  and  to  the  west.  The  term  "  navigable  "  upon  the 
affluents  of  the  Orinoco,  as  upon  the  lesser  tributaries  of 
the  Amazon,  must  be  taken  with  a  certain  reservation,  as 
navigation  consists  at  times  in  forcing  a  canoe  through 
shallow  waters  which  are  only  deep  enough  to  float  it  in 
the  rainy  season,  by  laborious  stages,  among  rocks,  shoals, 
rapids,  and  logs,  under  the  exertions  of  expert  Indian  boat- 
men. The  fall  of  the  Orinoco  in  the  dry  season  is  so  con- 
siderable that,  in  conjunction  with  the  bar  at  its  mouth 
and  the  shoals  in  tide  water,  its  value  as  a  great  navigable 
waterway  is  lessened.  The  difference  between  high  and  low 
water  reaches  at  times  as  much  as  fifty  feet.  The  fall  or 
slope  of  the  river,  however,  is  slight,  and  the  lower  reaches 
of  the  Meta,  900  miles  from  the  Atlantic,  are  but  little 
above  sea  level,  and  it  is  probable  that  the  river  may  prove 
susceptible  to  canalisation,  dredging,  and  other  improve- 
ments for  navigation,  whenever  its  future  shall  warrant  the 
outlay  necessary  for  so  large  a  project. 

The  Meta,  a  large  affluent  of  the  Orinoco,  is  formed  from 
the  union  of  two  Andean  streams,  the  Negro  and  Humadea, 
which  rise  near  Bogota,  at  whose  junction,  700  feet  above 
sea  level,  the  stream  is  1,000  feet  wide  and  seven  feet  deep 
in  the  dry  season,  rising  to  thirty  feet  at  flood  times.  It 
is  navigable  to  about  150  miles  from  its  mouth,  although 
launches,  in  the  wet  season,  may  ascend  for  500  miles  to 
the  juncture  of  the  Negro  with  the  Humadea.     In  the  dry 


COLOMBIA  AND   VENEZUELA  367 

season  it  is  much  obstructed  by  shoals  and  logs,  and  there 
are  savage  tribes  of  Indians  along  its  banks.  Eighty  miles 
above  the  confluence  of  the  Meta,  the  Orinoco  navigation  is 
blocked  by  the  Atures  and  the  Maipures  cataracts,  several 
miles  of  disordered  rocks  and  swirHng  foam,  with  a  total  fall 
for  the  last-named  of  forty  feet.  Above  the  cataracts  the 
upper  Orinoco  is  again  a  full-flowing  stream,  fed  by  the  two 
large  tributaries,  the  Vichada  and  the  Guaviare,  coming  from 
the  west.  The  Guaviare  is  navigable  for  300  miles  by  river 
steamer,  but  the  upper  portion  is  obstructed  by  rapids  and 
falls.  The  banks  are  covered  with  forest,  and  the  waters 
infested  by  numerous  aUigators  of  so  ferocious  a  nature,  that 
it  has  been  stated,  they  have  attacked  canoes.  One  of  its 
tributaries,  the  Ariari,  from  the  north-west,  is  navigable  for 
large  boats.  At  the  Maipures  cataract  the  Orinoco  breaks 
through  a  granite  spur  of  the  highlands  of  Guiana.  At 
its  confluence  with  the  Meta  it  is  a  mile  wide,  and  at  that  of 
the  Apure  two  miles  wide  in  the  dry  season  and  seven  miles 
in  flood  time,  narrowing  at  the  "  Angostura,"  or  narrows,  to 
800  feet,  with  a  rise  and  fall  of  fifty  and  at  times  sixty  feet. 
Above  the  Guaviare  confluence  the  upper  Orinoco  divides, 
the  principal  affluent  from  the  Guiana  highland,  the  Ven- 
tuari,  being  one  of  its  tributaries,  and  both  traverse  little- 
known,  mysterious  regions,  uninhabited  except  by  Indians. 
Still  higher  up  the  Orinoco  is  encountered  the  confluence  of 
one  of  the  most  remarkable  waterways  in  the  world  :  a 
natural  canal — the  Casiquiare — which  actually  connects 
the  hydrographic  system  of  the  Orinoco  with  that  of  the 
Amazon,  the  "  canal "  entering  the  Rio  Negro,  the 
important  tributary  near  whose  confluence  with  the  Amazon 
Manaos  is  situated.  The  Orinoco  during  the  year  191 2  was 
at  the  lowest  level  on  record,  by  reason  of  a  long,  dry  season, 
added,  it  is  stated,  to  the  fact  that  more  water  is  finding 
its  way  to  the  south  through  the  Casiquiare  "  canal,"  to 
the  Amazon.  The  banks  of  the  channels  through  the  intri- 
cate maze  of  swamps  and  watercourses  forming  the  delta 
of  the  Orinoco,  are  a  long,  continuous  screen  of  dense  tropical 
foliage,  and  little  life  is  seen,  especially  in  the  rainy  season, 
when,  due  to  flood  waters,  the  sloping  verge  is  covered. 


368  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 

Not  even  an  alligator  appears,  but  here  and  there  a  scarlet 
ibis,  an  eagle  or  heron  or  smaller  water  bird  breaks  the 
monotony  of  the  long,  green,  silent  desert  waterway.  An 
Indian  hut,  miserable  and  ruinous,  appears  at  wide  intervals, 
for  the  Carib  Indians  of  the  region  are  of  a  low  type ;  and 
an  occasional  canoe  pushes  out  with  provisions  for  sale  or 
barter.  The  Orinoco  during  the  rainy  season  overflows  its 
banks  and  floods  the  tangled  jungle  far  away  on  either  hand, 
driving  back  all  animal  life  to  the  higher  ground.  The 
jungle  is  almost  impenetrable,  and  the  traveller  lost  therein 
may  perish  of  starvation  in  the  midst  of  the  most  lavish 
arboreal  wealth. 

The  Arauco  is  a  further  important  tributary  of  the  Orinoco, 
paralleling  the  Apure  on  the  north,  navigable  for  large  boats 
and  barges  up  to  the  base  of  the  Andes.  It  overflows  into 
numerous  canos,  or  channels,  in  flood  times.  This  stream 
rises  in  the  Oriental  Andes  of  Colombia. 

The  basin  of  the  Orinoco  is  computed  as  covering  approxi- 
mately an  area  of  370,000  square  miles,  by  far  the  greater 
part  of  which  belongs  to  the  republic  of  Venezuela,  and 
forms  a  valuable  heritage  for  the  country.  At  present, 
however,  it  yields  a  very  small  national  return.  The 
possibilities  of  the  great  cattle  lands  are  adversely  affected 
to  some  extent  by  the  overflow  of  the  river,  when  the  cattle 
are  obliged  to  retire  to  the  limited  pastures  above  high-water 
line,  to  subsist  until  the  river  subsides,  leaving  behind  it  a 
fresh  vegetation.  The  dry  season  follows,  often  turning 
the  plains  into  an  arid  w'aste  by  prolonged  drought.  Similar 
conditions  affect  agriculture  and  tillage  in  these  flooded  areas. 
The  exports  from  Ciudad  Bolivar,  the  commercial  centre  of 
the  Orinoco,  for  the  last  year,  were  valued  at  £950,000,  of 
which  rubber  supplied  £608,000,  hides  £118,000,  gold 
£74,000,  feathers  £67,000,  and  cattle  £40,000.  These  articles 
are  all  forestal  or  plains  products  of  an  uncultivated  kind, 
and  dependent  upon  nature  to  a  large  extent.  A  customs 
house  has  recently  been  established  nearer  the  sea  than  that  of 
Ciudad  Bolivar,  and  the  iron  mines  being  worked  at  Imataca 
on  the  southern  shore  of  the  estuary  have  created  some  small 
movement  of  industry. 


COLOMBIA  AND   VENEZUELA  369 

When  this  enormous  torrent  of  water  from  the  Andes  and 
the  Guianas  shall  have  been  taken  in  hand  scientifically, 
it  will  perform  for  Venezuela  part  of  such  service  as  the 
Nile  performs  for  Egypt,  instead  of  being,  as  it  is  in  large 
part,  an  engine  of  destruction  and  waste.  No  more  alluring 
field  for  the  work  of  the  engineer  and  settler  exists  than  in 
these  vast  and  little-known  regions  of  the  basin  of  the 
Orinoco. 

The  climate  of  Venezuela,  except  where  influenced  by  the 
elevation  of  the  country,  is  a  tropical  one,  as  the  southern- 
most part  of  the  republic  reaches  within  a  few  miles  of  the 
equator.  The  climate  is  modified  on  the  coast  by  the  trade 
winds,  but  at  La  Guayra,  the  principal  seaport,  the  mean 
annual  temperature  is  85°  F.,  whilst  at  Caraccis  it  is  about 
62°.  Thus  the  day  temperature  on  the  coast  and  the 
southern  lowlands  is  hot,  the  average  being  lowered  by  the 
cooler  nights.  The  climate  in  general  may  be  regarded  as 
healthy,  except  where  the  ocean  winds  do  not  penetrate  ; 
and  in  some  districts  malarias  and  dangerous  fevers  prevail. 

Venezuela  is  one  of  the  most  sparsely  populated  of  the 
South  American  republics.  The  number  of  the  population 
is  largely  based  on  estimates,  which  vary  somewhat,  and  at 
present  this  cannot  exceed  3,000,000,  comprising  about  10 
per  cent,  of  a  white  race,  of  Spanish  descent  principally,  and 
70  per  cent,  of  mestizos,  the  remainder  being  made  up  of 
Indians,  negroes,  and  the  resident  foreigners  of  various 
nationalities.  The  country  has  probably  the  highest 
percentage  of  mestizos  of  any  South  American  state,  a  result 
of  early  colonising  activities. 

The  government  of  Venezuela  is  that  of  a  federal  republic, 
unlike  most  of  the  neighbouring  countries,  which  have  in 
general  the  centrahsed  constitution.  The  states  are  mdepend- 
ent  and  self-governing,  according  to  the  constitution,  but  this 
is  nominal  rather  than  actual  in  its  working.  The  Execu- 
tive, Legislative,  and  Judicial  branches  of  government  arc 
more  or  less  similar  to  those  of  the  other  republics  of  South 
America,  the  legislative  power  being — legally — vested  in 
the  National  Congress  of  Senate  and  Chamber  of  Deputies : 
the  former  comprising  forty  members,  two  from  each  state, 

AA 


370  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 

elected  by  the  state  legislature ;  and  the  latter  of  members 
elected  by  direct  vote  in  the  proportion  of  one  representative 
for  every  35,000  of  the  population.  The  president,  two 
vice-presidents,  and  the  cabinet  of  seven  ministers  constitute 
the  executive  power,  which,  in  Venezuela,  permits  the 
exercise  of  almost  absolute  authority.  The  Judiciary  con- 
sists in  the  supreme  or  federal  court  and  subordinate  tribu- 
nals, the  Federal  court  being  also  a  Corte  de  Casacion,  or 
Appeal.  The  laws  of  Venezuela  are  well  codified  both  as 
to  law  and  procedure,  for  all  departments  of  justice,  as 
regards  their  theoretical  disposition.  The  state  govern- 
ments, constitutionally  autonomous,  comprise  legislative 
assembUes,  composed  of  deputies  elected  by  ballot.  The 
states  are  subdivided  into  districts  and  municipalities,  over 
each  of  which  stands  a  jeje  politico.  Venezuela  is  thus  con- 
stitutionally a  federated  republic,  but  republican  principles 
have,  in  practice,  been  little  exercised.  The  history  of  the 
country  records  that  no  single  president  has  ever  attained 
office  through  election,  or  left  it  without  the  accompaniment 
of  a  revolution. 

The  Venezuelans,  like  the  Colombians,  are  very  backward 
in  national  education,  and  in  both  republics  this  is  partly 
due  to  the  apathy  or  antagonism  of  the  Church.  The  great 
majority  of  the  people  are  illiterate,  not  by  reason  of  lack 
of  educational  laws,  which  are  in  theory  good,  and  education 
is  free  and  nominally  compulsory,  but  schools  and  teachers 
are  insufficient.  The  public  regards  education  with  indif- 
ference, and  the  ruhng  classes  take  little  interest  in  the 
advancement  of  the  mestizo  and  Indian  classes.  Schools 
under  the  influence  of  the  Church  are  the  most  numerous, 
but  the  Church  is  opposed  to  municipal  schools.  There 
are  two  universities,  at  Caracas  and  Merida,  and  thirty-three 
national  colleges.  In  1908  there  were  only  1,150  public 
schools,  with  about  36,000  pupils,  and  a  number  of  parochial 
schools.  The  university  at  Merida,  is  known  as  the 
Universidad  de  los  Andes.  The  Caracas  university  was 
founded  in  early  colonial  times,  and  has  had  many  pro- 
minent Venezuelans  under  its  teaching.  The  national  college 
corresponds  to  the  lyceum  and  high  school  of  other  countries. 


COLOMBIA  ANl5   VENEZUELA  371 

There  are  law,  medical,  and  engineering  schools  in  the 
country,  but  little  is  heard  of  them.  The  episcopal  schools 
are  good,  especially  the  one  at  Caracas ;  and  in  addition 
to  these,  normal,  polytechnic,  mining,  and  agricultural 
schools  are  maintained,  the  last  at  Caracas,  containing  a 
good  library  and  museum.  There  are  several  mechanics' 
schools — Artes  y  Oficios — in  the  larger  cities,  with  a  number 
of  private  schools.  The  national  library,  with  about  50,000 
volumes,  national  museum,  with  a  valuable  historical  collec- 
tion, the  observatory,  devoted  to  astronomical  and  meteor- 
ological work,  and  the  Academy  and  National  Academy  of 
History  are  other  educational  institutions. 

The  religion  of  the  state  is  the  Roman  Catholic,  but  freedom 
of  worship  is  legally  guaranteed.  The  president,  however, 
has  the  power  to  refuse  admission  to  foreigners  into  the  country 
who  are  engaged  in  special  religious  work,  if  this  does  not 
meet  with  his  approval.  In  practice  no  other  form  of 
worship  exists  in  the  country  than  that  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  ;  and  persons  of  other  denominations  hold  their 
services  in  inconspicuous  chapels  or  private  apartments  in 
the  larger  cities,  where  considerable  numbers  of  foreigners 
reside.  The  state  contributes  to  the  support  of  the  Church, 
builds  its  churches  and  provides  for  the  salaries  of  its  clergy. 
The  state,  however,  has  the  power  to  approve  or  reject  all 
ecclesiastical  appointments  and  the  execution  of  all  decrees 
of  the  Roman  See. 

The  pastoral  and  agricultural  industries  of  the  country 
are  those  which  form  the  chief  occupation  of  the  people, 
and  the  source  of  the  national  wealth  of  Venezuela.  The 
country  is  generally  fertile,  but  irrigation  is  necessary, 
especially  during  the  long,  dry  season,  upon  the  great  plains. 
In  the  coastal  region,  however,  the  rainfall  is  sufficient  for 
cultivation  without  artificial  irrigation.  The  great  river 
system  of  the  Orinoco,  whose  tributaries  cross  the  Vene- 
zuelan prairies  in  all  directions,  and  the  streams  descending 
from  the  highlands,  offer  unhmited  scope  for  water  storage 
and  supply,  little  of  which  is  utilised.  On  the  high  table- 
lands the  forage  of  native  grass  might  be  augmented  by 
sowing  alfalfa,  so  forming  more  adequate  feeding-grounds  for 


372  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

stock.  A  departed  industry  upon  the  llanos  was  in  the 
immense  herds  of  horses  and  cattle.  In  colonial  times  the 
great  plains  were  well  populated  with  live-stock,  and  the 
Llaneros,  or  hardy  race  of  horsemen  of  Venezuela,  were 
among  the  most  expert  in  the  world,  and  formed  some  of 
the  best  fighting  material  in  South  America  :  but  they  were 
so  much  drawn  upon  and  reduced  in  the  War  of  Independence 
and  in  subsequent  civil  conflict,  that  both  they  and  their 
herds  have  nearly  disappeared.  The  plains  of  Venezuela 
might  have  been  an  important  source  of  food-supply,  in 
meat  export  for  the  world's  markets,  under  more  favourable 
circumstances.  Some  cattle  and  hides  are  exported,  and 
goats  and  swine  bred  in  the  region. 

The  chief  agricultural  industry  and  product  of  Venezuela 
is  in  coffee  growing.  It  is  estimated  that  there  are  33,000 
coffee  estates  in  the  republic,  containing  250,000,000  trees, 
the  best  quality  of  berry  being  known  as  the  Maracaibo 
coffee,  which  is  produced  near  the  Colombian  border— and 
partly  in  Colombia — and  on  the  slopes  of  the  Cordillera  up 
to  an  elevation  of  3,000  feet.  The  yield  per  tree  is  less  than 
that  of  Sao  Paulo  in  Brazil.  The  value  of  the  coffee  export 
has  reached  several  million  sterling.  Following  upon  coffee, 
the  cultivation  and  export  of  cacao,  or  chocolate,  is  an  im- 
portant industry,  engaged  in  which  there  are  about  5,000 
estates.  Sugar-cane  is  successfully  cultivated,  and  sugar 
manufactured,  mainly  \\dth  old-fashioned  appliances.  In 
the  Maracaibo  district  there  are  milUons  of  acres  of  lands 
which  are  considered  suitable  for  cotton-growing,  of  the  best 
possible  character,  with  a  climate  adapted  to  the  develop- 
ment of  the  plant  as  appropriate  as  the  climate  of  the 
southern  states  of  the  United  States.  Due  to  lack  of  labour 
and  other  causes,  however,  cotton-growing  is  not  regarded 
with  favour  by  the  native  planters,  who  make  money  more 
easily  with  other  products.  Maize  and  beans  are  largely 
grown  and  are  the  staple  food  of  the  working-class  people  of 
Venezuela.  Wheat  is  produced  in  the  highlands,  but  not  in 
excess  of  the  home  demand.  A  great  variety  of  fruits  and 
vegetables  is  produced,  and  almost  every  kind  of  frait  could 
be  cultivated  in  the  tropical  and  the  temperate  regions.  Agri- 


COLOMBIA  AND  VENEZUELA  373 

culture  in  Venezuela  has  been  greatly  prejudiced  by  military 
disturbances,  but  is  capable  of  a  very  extended  develop- 
ment. 

Of  forest  products  there  are  many,  and  they  furnish 
regular  industrial  occupations  ;  including  woods,  fibres, 
cocoanuts  and  rubber.  The  Hevea  rubber-trees  are  first 
met  with  on  the  Orinoco  on  Raton  island  above  Maipures, 
a  district  above  the  rapids  of  Atures,  at  which  point  naviga- 
tion by  river  steamer  ends.  San  Fernando  de  Atabapo  is 
the  principal  trading  centre  of  the  district,  where  the  rubber 
gatherers  ship  their  rubber  to  Ciudad  Bolivar,  the  total 
output  amounting  at  most  to  4,000  quintals  of  rubber  and 
sernamby  per  annum.  In  the  region  of  the  Casiquiare 
river,  from  the  confluence  of  that  stream  with  the  Orinoco 
as  far  as  the  junction  of  the  Rio  Negro,  rubber-trees  are 
fairly  plentiful,  and  the  indigenous  population  larger,  but 
about  3,000  quintals  per  annum  represent  the  output. 
Upon  other  tributaries  of  the  Orinoco  rubber  forests 
have  been  discovered  of  late  and  a  small  production 
of  rubber  made,  but  the  region  is  comparatively  little 
known. 

The  copper  and  gold  mines  of  Venezuela  are  a  source  of 
some  industry  and  wealth  to  the  country.  Gold  is  most 
plentiful  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  country,  near  the  border 
of  British  Guiana,  and  El  Callao  mine  in  that  region  yielded 
gold,  from  1871  to  1890,  calculated  at  a  value  of  i|  million 
ounces.  The  principal  copper  mines  belong  to  an  English 
company,  and  their  output,  from  1878  to  1891,  was  valued 
at  £"2,750,000  sterling.  Coal,  iron,  sulphur,  mercury,  petro- 
leum and  asphalt  are  other  mineral  products  of  the  country  ; 
and  pearl-fishing  has  been  an  ancient  and  famous  industry 
of  the  Venezuelan  coast  and  islands.  In  the  mining  of 
iron  ore  some  development  has  taken  place  in  the  Imataca 
mountains,  on  the  delta  of  the  Orinoco,  where  mines  are 
being  worked  by  a  Canadian  company,  and  the  ores  shipped 
to  Philadelphia.  Extensive  deposits  of  good  iron  ore  exist, 
it  is  stated,  along  the  river,  and  the  Imataca  Ore  Company 
has  installed  extensive  appliances,  and  some  thousands  of 
tons  of  mineral  have  been  exported,  the  enterprise  giving 


374  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH  AMERICA 

occupation  to  some  hundreds  of  native  and  foreign  workmen . 
The  ore  averages,  it  is  stated,  67  per  cent,  of  iron,  and  an 
estimate  of  a  possible  output  of  1,000,000  tons  a  year  has 
been  made  :  to  be  shipped  in  steamers  of  a  special  design 
such  as  will  convey  a  maximum  freight  across  the  Orinoco 
bar.  At  Maracaibo  considerable  interest  has  been  displayed 
in  the  mineral  deposits  of  the  district,  and  on  the  river  Guasare, 
in  the  Guajira  peninsula,  coal  deposits  are  being  explored. 
It  has  been  affirmed  that  a  large  quantity  of  coal  is  available, 
but  that  the  difficulty  lies  in  means  of  transport  to  tide 
water.  In  the  region  of  Lake  Maracaibo  exploration  has 
been  undertaken  for  petroleum,  and  it  is  stated  that  there 
are  several  petroleum  deposits  in  the  district.  Oozings  of 
petroleum,  covering  a  considerable  territory,  are  found  in 
the  district  of  Mara,  near  the  river  Limon  asphalt  lake.  Oil 
has  been  found  at  Bella  Vista,  near  the  city  of  Maracaibo, 
and  exploration  work  is  being  carried  out,  the  object 
being  to  refine  the  product  and  to  supply  the  local  demand 
for  illuminating  and  lubricating  oils.  Evidence  of  the  exist- 
ence of  petroleum  deposits  is  found  over  a  large  area  in  the 
district  of  Sucre,  in  conjunction  with  considerable  asphalt 
deposits.  An  oilfield  on  the  river  Sardinate  in  Colombia, 
near  the  Venezuelan  frontier,  is  being  worked  at  the  present 
time.  The  oil  is  refined  at  the  wells  and  sold  in  the  near-by 
Colombian  cities.  The  field  that  appears  to  be  the  largest 
and  most  conveniently  situated  is  south  of  lake  Maracaibo 
in  the  district  of  Colon,  in  the  state  of  Zulia. 

The  region  of  Maracaibo  is  one  of  much  importance 
for  Venezuela,  and  the  city  is  a  distributing  point  for  one 
of  the  richest  districts  in  the  northern  part  of  South  America. 
It  is  situated  on  the  west  shore  of  the  broad  channel  which 
connects  Lake  Maracaibo  with  the  gulf  of  Venezuela,  and 
has  a  population  of  some  60,000  inhabitants.  The  city  is 
provided  with  tramways  and  electric  lights  and  other  modern 
conveniences,  but,  as  too  often  the  case  in  such  communities, 
the  water  supply  and  general  sanitary  system  are  inadequate. 
The  principal  buildings  are  those  of  the  state  and  municipal 
legislatures,  and  as  Maracaibo  was  in  earlier  times  one  of 
the  principal  educational  centres  of  South  America,  institu- 


COLOMBIA  AND   VENEZUELA  375 

tions  connected  with  education  are  of  some  importance. 
But  the  principal  activity  of  the  city  is  commercial. 

The  relatively  few  manufactures  of  Venezuela  are  pro- 
duced under  the  customary  South  American  system  of  high 
protective  tariffs,  aided  by  official  concessions  and  favours, 
embodying  in  the  main  local  industries  and  articles  of  every- 
day consumption.  Several  hydro-electric  power  and  light 
stations  have  been  installed  upon  the  rivers,  and  some 
activity  is  being  displayed  in  Maracaibo  in  the  establishment 
of  sugar  and  cotton  mills,  and  the  extension  of  roads  and 
railways  to  the  rich  agricultural  districts. 

The  navigable  waterways  of  Venezuela,  as  before  described, 
furnish  valuable  means  of  communication  which  are  capable 
of  much  greater  development.  There  are  seventy  rivers 
throughout  the  territory  of  the  republic,  having  an  aggregate 
navigable  length  of  6,000  miles,  4,000  of  which  are  repre- 
sented by  the  Orinoco  and  its  tributaries.  A  service  of 
steamboats  is  maintained  on  lakes  Maracaibo  and  Valencia, 
also  on  the  Orinoco  and  some  of  the  other  rivers,  but  these 
services  are  small  in  comparison  with  the  real  capabilities 
of  such  important  fluvial  systems. 

The  railways  of  the  republic  have  an  aggregate  length  of 
less  than  500  miles.  The  best-known  line,  and  one  of  the 
few  paying  a  dividend,  is  the  British  owned  railway  from  La 
Guayra  to  Caracas,  twenty-four  miles  long.  A  further 
British  line  is  that  from  Puerto  Cabello  to  Valencia,  thirty- 
four  miles  long,  with  a  section  having  a  central  cog-rail ; 
and  this  railway  carries  a  considerable  traffic.  The  longest 
railway  in  the  county  is  the  German  line  from  Caracas  to 
Valencia,  iii  miles  in  length.  Other  lines  are  those  from 
Encontrada,  on  Lake  Maracaibo,  inland  ;  that  to  Trujillo  ; 
and  that  serving  the  important  town  of  Barquisimeto. 
For  the  three  British  companies  ;  of  La  Guayra  and  Caracas, 
the  Puerto  Cabello  and  Valencia,  and  the  Bolivar  railways, 
the  total  gross  receipts  for  last  year  amounted  to  £217,000,  an 
increase  of  £27,000  on  the  previous  year.  Some  of  these 
lines  have  had  heavy  claims  against  the  government  for 
arrear  of  guarantees. 

The  pre-war  import  trade  for  the  city  of  Maracaibo  had 


376  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 

reached  a  value  of  nearly  £445,000,  of  which  £100,000  was 
of  British  origin,  with  a  slightly  larger  amount  from  Germany 
and  £170,000  from  the  United  States.  The  exports  were 
valued  at  £950,000,  of  which  £820,000  went  to  the  United 
States  and  £7,000  to  Great  Britain.  The  imports  have 
fallen  somewhat  since,  the  loss  having  been  in  British  and 
German  trade.  The  German  commercial  element  has, 
however,  striven  to  uphold  its  influence,  and  keen  competi- 
tion in  general  results  between  American  and  European 
efforts.  In  cotton  piece-goods,  cutlery,  wine  and  liquors 
Britain  does  the  principal  trade,  and  the  United  States  in 
arms  and  ammunition.  For  manufactures  of  iron  and 
steel,  general  hardware,  and  many  of  the  usual  manufactured 
articles  of  commerce  there  is  room  for  trade  expansion. 

The  trade  of  Venezuela  for  the  year  191 1  reached  a  value 
of  £6,600,300,  nearly  a  million  more  than  the  previous 
year.  The  value  of  the  imports  was  £2,850,000,  and  of  the 
exports  £3,750,000,  a  growth  consequent  upon  a  period 
of  domestic  peace  and  a  good  coffee  crop.  The  imports 
from  the  United  Kingdom  and  Colonies  amounted  to  a 
value  of  £917,000,  or  32  per  cent.,  which  included  a  consider- 
able increase  in  cotton  goods  imported  :  the  United  States 
took  26  per  cent,  and  Germany  19  per  cent.  The  United 
Kingdom  is  hampered  in  her  trade  with  Venezuela,  however, 
due  to  the  relatively  few  British  firms  established  in  the 
country,  in  comparison  with  German,  French,  Spanish,  and 
Italian  houses.  For  1920,  the  value  of  the  imports  into  the 
Republic  was  77,245,000  Bolivares  and  the  exports  therefrom 
102,660,000  Bolivares. 

Venezuela  and  Colombia  must  be  regarded  as  regions 
which,  having  been  kept  back  greatly  in  their  social  and 
economic  development  in  the  past,  contain  much  for  a 
generation  that  shall  know  how,  equitably  and  wisely, 
to  profit  by  the  advantages  of  soil  and  position  which  they 
hold.  It  may  transpire  that,  with  the  creation  of  a  greater 
commercial  movement  following  upon  the  opening  of  the 
Panama  canal,  the  economic  value  of  these  countries  of  the 
"  American  Mediterranean  "  will  rise.  But  it  is  not  merely 
commercial  movement  that  these  countries  require.     Their 


COLOMBIA   AND   VENEZUELA  377 

ill-educated  and  backward  lower  classes,  lull  of  latent 
possibilities,  call  for  organisation  in  their  interests  of  the 
resources  of  their  fatherland,  and  the  putting  into  real 
practice  of  those  plans  of  government  and  prosperity,  of 
which  so  far  they  have  enjoyed  little  more  than  the  theory. 
The  population  in  general  is  merely  scattered  in  comparative 
poverty  over  a  rich  region  capable  of  supporting  prosperous 
and  enhghtened  nations. 

THE  GUIANAS 

The  purpose  of  this  book  being  to  deal  with  the  inde- 
pendant  states  of  the  Latin  American  mainland,  the 
possessions  of  foreign  powers  therein  are  not  within  its 
scope.  Nevertheless,  the  Guianas,  forming  as  they  do  part 
of  the  territory  covered,  must  be  given  a  brief  description. 

Guiana  is  the  name,  in  its  broadest  acceptance,  given  to 
that  region  whose  boundary  is  formed  by  the  water-parting 
of  the  streams  of  the  Orinoco  and  Amazon,  and  extending 
southwards  towards  the  main  Amazon  river,  from  latitude 
8°  40'  N.,  to  3°  30'  S.,  lying  therefore  upon  the  equator; 
and  from  longitude  50°  W.  to  68°  30'  W.,  with  a  long  shore 
line  on  the  north-east  coast  of  South  America,  from  the 
mouth  of  the  Orinoco  to  the  mouth  of  the  Amazon.  This 
vast  territory  covers  approximately  690,000  square  miles, 
and  includes  Venezuelan,  British,  Dutch,  French,  and 
Brazilian  Guiana.  British  Guiana,  often  known  as  Demerara, 
is  the  only  British  possession  in  South  America,  apart  from 
the  several  islands.  The  area  is  estimated  at  90,300  square 
miles,  and  the  population  (1910)  at  310,000.  Of  these,  less 
than  5,000  are  Europeans  other  than  Portuguese,  estimated 
at  about  12,000.  About  120,000  are  negroes,  and  124,000 
East  Indians,  with  30,000  of  mixed  race,  and  about  6,000 
Aborigines,  Arawaks,  Caribs,  etc.,  who  appear  to  have 
decreased  considerably  of  late  years.  Georgetown,  the 
capital,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Demerara  river,  has  a  popula- 
tion of  about  50,000.  Government  consists  in  an  executive 
power  invested  in  a  governor,  appointed  from  Great  Britain, 
with  an  executive  council  of  five  official  members,  and  three 
unofficial  members  nominated  by  the  crown  ;  a  legislative 


378  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

authority,  or  court  of  Policy,  with  seven  official  and  eight 
elected  members,  and  supreme  and  other  courts.  The 
official  language  is  EngHsh,and  British  institutions  generally 
prevail.  The  revenue  and  expenditure  amount  each  to 
about  £500,000  annually ;  the  total  imports  to  about 
£650,000,  and  exports  to  about  £300,000  per  annum.  Topo- 
graphically, four  regions  are  marked,  the  alluvial  sea-board, 
flat  and  generally  below  high  water  level,  the  forest  belt 
along  the  rivers,  the  inland  savannas  and  elevated  treeless 
tablelands,  and  the  mountain  ranges.  The  main  physical 
features  are  the  rivers,  which  form  a  network  over  the 
whole  territory,  and  are  almost  the  only  highways,  except 
the  short  coast  railway.  Vast  cataracts  exist,  and  the 
scenery  in  places  is  of  great  beauty.  For  a  tropical 
land  the  climate  cannot  be  regarded  as  unhealthy,  and 
the  malarial  fevers  are  preventable.  The  vegetation  is 
remarkably  luxuriant.  Valuable  forestal  products  and 
tropical  fruits  abound,  and  a  varied  fauna.  Sugar  and 
its  bye-products,  gold,  timber,  balata,  and  cattle  are  the 
chief  exports.  Cotton  and  coffee  production,  important 
early  in  last  century,  fell  off  greatly  after  the  emancipa- 
tion of  the  slaves.  Cultivation  of  the  fertile  soil,  except 
as  the  sugar,  coffee,  and  cocoa  estates,  is  haphazard,  A 
great  deal  of  the  land  under  private  ownership  is  not  well 
occupied,  and  the  vast  tracts  of  crown  lands  are  unculti- 
vated in  the  main.  A  land  of  fine  opportunities  and  great 
resources,  it  cannot  be  said  that  the  development  of  British 
Guiana  is  more  advanced  than  that  of  its  Latin  American 
neighbours.  Dutch  Guiana  or  Surinam  has  an  area  of  about 
57,900  square  miles,  and  a  population  of  about  85,000. 
French  Guiana  of  51,000  square  miles,  with  a  population 
estimated  at  30,000.  The  physical  conditions  of  these  two 
colonies  are  very  similar  to  those  of  the  British  colony,  of 
coastal  lowlands,  rivers,  forests,  savanna  and  mountains, 
and  their  condition  of  government  are  of  an  analogous  nature. 
Of  Trinidad,  Barbadoes,  and  other  British  island  possessions, 
description  cannot  be  entered  upon  here.  They  are  in  some 
respects  revelations  to  the  traveller,  of  attractive  appearance, 
with  advanced  towns. 


THE   UNITED   STATES   OF   MEXICO         379 


CHAPTER     XII 
THE   UNITED   STATES   OF  MEXICO 

Among  all  the  great  lands  of  the  New  World,  upon  which 
Spain  set  the  seal  of  her  language  and  institutions,  none 
stands  out  more  markedly,  or  with  a  more  intensive  indi- 
viduality, than  Mexico.  The  name  of  Mexico  carries  with 
it  interesting  traditions  of  history  and  romance,  and  certain 
attributes  of  topographical  environment  no  less  chequered 
and  attractive  ;  characteristics  such  as  even  the  modem  age 
seems  as  yet  incapable  of  dispersing  or  overcoming.  Whilst 
the  rest  of  the  North  American  continent,  under  the  hand  of 
the  prosaic  Anglo-Saxon,  keeps  its  great  shops  and  minds  its 
factories  and  fields,  and  is  overrun  by  a  democratic  people, 
bujring,  selling,  and  creating,  the  picturesque  and  quixotic 
dweller  of  New  Spain  fights  for  his  ideals,  and  asserts  the 
strong  and  turbulent  individualism  of  his  race,  whose 
mastership  commerce  has  not  yet  been  able  to  subdue. 

Mexico  is  the  dividing  line  between  the  two  civilisations 
of  America,  the  Anglo-American  and  the  Latin  American, 
and  forms  a  frontier  of  language,  institutions,  and  ideals. 
Between  these  two  peoples  a  small  river^ — the  Rio  Grande 
del  Norte — dry  in  summer,  is  the  only  boundary  ;  and 
against  it  the  two  civilisations  roll  together  but  scarcely 
mingle.  The  people  of  the  United  States  and  Canada,  and 
those  of  Latin  America,  are  as  greatly  separated  in  their 
character  and  social  life  as  are  England  and  France.  The 
one  is  prosiac,  commercial,  solid,  mediocre ;  the  other 
ideahstic,  autocratic,  ephemeral,  sentimental ;  they  are,  to  a 
certain  extent,  a  foil  to  each  other  :  neither  can  dominate 
the  other,  but  both  can  teach  ;  and  yet  where  mingling 
does  take  place  it  is  the  Latin  race  whose  impress  is  the 


38o  CENTRAL   AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

stronger,  and  not  the  Saxon,  as  might  have  been  supposed. 
If  the  United  States  and  its  commercial  forces  teach  their 
southern  neighbours  the  mechanical  arts,  these  in  return 
tend  to  force  upon  the  northerners  the  amenities  of  com- 
mercial and  social  intercourse,  whenever  they  come  into 
contact.  The  conversion  of  the  brusque  American  business 
man  who  goes  from  New  York  or  Chicago  to  Mexico,  to 
the  suavity  of  the  man  of  the  Latin  race  is  one  of  the  most 
marked  social  phenomena  of  the  New  World.  Perhaps 
in  no  part  of  the  world  are  racial  frontiers  more  strongly 
defined  than  on  the  Mexican  and  United  States  border  ; 
but  it  is  to  be  recollected  that  the  Anglo-American  is,  in 
a  sense,  an  exotic  or  alien,  and  the  Mexican  largely 
autochthonous  or  indigenous. 

The  republic  of  Mexico,  and  the  lesser  republics  grouped 
together  and  known  as  Central  America,  described  in  the 
following  chapter,  enjoy  a  peculiarly  advantageous  geo- 
graphical situation,  facing  upon  both  the  Atlantic  and 
Pacific  oceans  ;  and  the  latter  group  forms  the  geographical 
hnk  between  the  two  American  continents.  To  the  west 
lies  Asia  ;  to  the  east  Europe.  The  Central  American  group 
includes  the  British  colony  of  Honduras,  and  forms  the 
western  side  of  the  American  Mediterranean,  which  now  has 
its  outlet  to  the  Pacific  in  the  Panama  canal.  Mexico 
and  Central  America  together  cover  a  very  extensive 
territory :  measured  upon  the  Pacific  coast,  from  the 
boundary  of  the  United  States  to  the  mainland  of  South 
America  below  the  isthmus  of  Panama  and  Darien,  this 
territory  is  roughly  3,000  miles  long,  and  the  total  area 
covered  is  975,000  square  miles,  approximately. 

The  area  of  the  republic  of  Mexico  alone  is  767,000  square 
miles;  it  is  as  large  as  Great  Britain,  Germany,  France, 
and  Austria-Hungary  combined.  The  total  population 
of  the  country  is  estimated  at  17,000,000  inhabitants,  of 
which  45  per  cent,  are  mestizos,  40  per  cent.  Indians,  and 
15  per  cent,  are  classed  as  white.  As  in  the  case  of  the 
other  South  American  republics,  the  proportion  of  people 
of  pure  white  descent  cannot  be  exactly  stated,  and  is 
subject  to  exaggeration  :  but  the  mestizos  tend  to  increase 


THE  UNITED   STATES   OF  MEXICO         381 

and  the  Indians  and  whites  to  be  absorbed  in  the  formation 
of  the  typical  Mexican  race,  the  basis  of  the  normal 
population,  and  the  nationality  understood  as  "  Mexican," 
which  is  that  of  the  mixed  race.  The  census  of  1900  included 
57,000  foreigners,  of  which  16,000  were  Spaniards,  15,000 
Americans,  and  from  4,000  to  2,000  French,  English, 
Germans,  Chinese,  and  Italians.  To-day  conditions  differ. 

The  surface  of  Mexico  is  largely  composed  of  an  immense 
plateau,  whose  edges  on  the  east  and  west  appear  as  forming 
mountain  chains  when  viewed  from  the  coast,  either  on  the 
Atlantic  or  Pacific  side.  This  plateau  may  be  regarded  as  a 
vast  inclined  plane  sloping  upwards  from  north  to  south,  from 
an  elevation  of  about  4,000  feet  above  sea  level  on  the  United 
States  border  to  8,000  feet  at  the  valley  of  Mexico.  The 
general  form  of  the  country,  neglecting  the  portion  south  of 
the  Tehuantepec  isthmus,  is  that  of  a  cornucopia :  the  moun- 
tains running  approximately  parallel  with  the  coast  and  ap- 
proaching each  other  towards  the  south,  and  are  known 
as  the  Eastern  and  Western  Sierra  Madre.  Below  the 
Great  Plateau  of  Mexico  lie  the  lowlands  of  the  Mexican 
gulf  on  the  one  side,  and  of  the  Pacific  littoral  on  the 
other.  South  of  the  isthmus  of  Tehuantepec  lies  the  singular 
peninsula  of  Yucatan,  a  flat  limestone  plain,  forest-covered  ; 
and  the  state  of  Chiapas,  bordering  upon  Guatemala 
and  the  neighbouring  Central  American  republics.  The 
remaining  topographical  division  of  Mexico  is  the  long, 
narrow  peninsula  of  Lower  California,  paralleling  the  Pacific 
coast  in  the  north. 

Mexico  is  crossed  about  midway  by  the  tropic  of 
Cancer,  and  stretching  over  seventeen  parallels  of  latitude 
— a  territory  upon  its  greatest  axis  more  than  2,000 
miles  long — is  subject  to  variations  of  tropical  and 
sub-tropical  conditions  of  climate.  The  great  elevation 
of  the  more  southerly  part  of  the  plateau  endows  it 
with  a  comparatively  cool  climate,  the  mornings  and 
evenings  in  the  city  of  Mexico,  in  latitude  19°  N.,  being 
frequently  very  cool.  There  is  a  very  marked  diurnal 
range  of  temperature  on  the  Mexican  plateau,  due  to  the 
altitude,    the  heat  of  the  mid-day  sun  being  replaced  at 


382  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

night  by  the  cold,  rarefied  air  ;  and  an  Arctic  touch  is 
experienced  in  the  mountains,  some  few  of  whose  peaks  pass 
the  perpetual  snow  line  :  but  apart  from  this  condition 
the  heat  upon  the  plateau  is  considerable,  and  the  lowlands 
are  often  hot  and  humid.  In  Mexico,  as  in  Central  America 
and  the  Andean  countries  of  South  America,  the  conditions 
of  climate  and  temperature  are  governed  by  altitude ; 
and  the  Spaniards  on  first  arriving  in  this  part  of  the  New 
World  distinguished  three  zones  of  territory,  which  they 
named  Tierra  Caliente,  or  hot  lands,  Tierra  Templada,  or 
temperate  lands,  and  Tierra  Fria,  or  cold  lands.  The 
first-named  lies  upon  the  coasts  on  both  sides  of  the  country ; 
the  second  embraces  the  slopes  of  the  great  tableland  and 
a  portion  of  the  plateau  itself ;  and  the  third  the  higher 
part  of  the  uplands  and  the  mountain  ridges  which  bound 
or  intersect  it.  All  these  climatic  changes  may  be  ex- 
perienced within  a  day's  journey  in  ascending  from  the 
coast  by  the  railway  from  Vera  Cruz  to  the  city  of  Mexico, 
or  that  from  Tampico.  Coffee  groves  and  banana  plantations 
mark  the  first  of  the  chmatic  zones,  giving  place  to  oak, 
pine,  and  wheat  as  t3rpical  products  of  the  higher  zone. 

Mexico,  as  regards  certain  of  its  attributes,  possesses  a 
foremost  place  among  the  Latin  American  nations.  It 
is  true  that  the  area  of  the  republic  is  much  less  than  that 
of  Brazil  and  Argentina,  and  that  the  republic  possesses 
no  commercial  area  of  such  importance  as  that  embodied 
by  Buenos  Ayres  and  the  River  Plate,  with  its  vast 
output  of  food  products,  and  more  modem  conditions  of  life  ; 
nor  yet  any  great  export  trade  such  as  the  coffee  of  Brazil 
or  the  nitrate  of  Chile  afford  to  those  countries.  But  on 
the  other  hand,  the  civilisation  of  Mexico  is  an  older  one, 
more  firmly  established  and  more  widely  disseminated. 
The  state  capitals  are  more  or  less  populous  centres, 
most  of  them  cities  of  importance,  and  well  distributed 
throughout  the  repubhc.  The  city  of  Mexico  has  a  popu- 
lation of  400,000  people,  and  following  upon  the  capital 
are  such  important  cities  as  Guadalajara  on  the  Pacific 
slope,  with  125,000  people  ;  Puebla  on  the  Mexican  gulf 
slope,   with  100,000 ;    Monterey    in    the    north-east,    with 


THE   UNITED   STATES   OF   MEXICO 


o"j 


64,000  ;  San  Luis  Potosi  with  62,000  ;  Merida,  the  capital  of 
Yucatan,  with  45,000  ;  Guanajuato,  the  famous  old  mining 
centre,  with  42,000  ;  Pachuca,  another  famous  mining  town, 
and  Morelia,  each  with  about  38,000  ;  Oaxaca,  in  the  south, 
and  Aguascalientes,  in  the  middle  region,  each  with  about 
36,000 ;  Queretaro,  the  deathplace  of  MaximiHan  ;  Zacatecas, 
a  famous  and  handsome  mining  centre,  with  Durango  and 
Chihuahua,  in  the  order  named,  with  populations  ranging 
from  34,000  to  31,000 ;  Toluca,  SaltOlo,  Colima,  Jalapa, 
ranging  from  27,000  to  21,000  ;  with  eight  other  state  capitals 
of  more  than  10,000  inhabitants  each.  Most  of  the  large 
cities  are  situated  upon  the  great  plateau  or  its  slopes, 
but  good-sized  towns  are  found  in  the  tropic  lowlands. 
The  climate  of  these  cities,  with  small  exception,  is  healthy  ; 
and  in  many  cases  the  environment  is  invigorating  and 
delightful,  often  hot  at  mid-day,  with  cool  early  mornings 
and  evenings.  Nearly  all  the  Mexican  towns  are  on  the 
typical  Spanish-colonial  town-plan  of  cross  streets,  geomet- 
rically laid  out  with  central  plaza  and  characteristic  style 
of  domestic  and  church  architecture.  Their  general 
appearance  is  pleasing  and  often  distinguished,  and  they 
offer  a  marked  contrast  with  the  towns  of  Anglo-America, 
in  their  quaint  and  non-commercial  aspect. 

The  government  of  Mexico  is  described  in  the  constitution 
as  a  federation  of  free  and  sovereign  states,  with  repre- 
sentative, democratic  institutions.  Theoretically  it  is 
perhaps  the  foremost  example  of  a  Latin  American  federal 
republic,  but  in  practice  it  is  a  federal  republic  with 
centraUsed  executive  powers,  which  have  been  exercised 
autocratically  and  supported  by  military  influence  and 
power.  Notwithstanding  that  the  authority  of  the  presi- 
dent is,  by  the  constitution,  carefully  defined  and  limited, 
the  executive  has  been  practically  supreme.  A  military 
despotism  of  a  "  benevolent "  character  formed  the 
government  under  the  rule  of  Diaz,  and  there  was  much 
excuse  for  iron-handed  methods,  in  the  turbulent  character 
of  the  revolutionary  element,  and  in  the  lawlessness, 
bloodshed,  and  robbery  that  existed  away  from  the  towns  ; 
not  due  to  the  acts  of  the  peaceful  peons,  who  were  generally 


384  CENTRAL   AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

docile  and  content  to  live  and  let  live ;  but  to  highwaymen, 
who  earlier  infested  the  roads  and  made  travelling  unsafe, 
and  to  malcontents  and  jealous  or  unoccupied  mihtary 
men,  who  themselves  were  desirous  of  tasting  the  sweets 
of  office  :  all  people  with  more  or  less  of  Spanish  blood  in 
their  veins. 

The  government  of  Mexico  is  divided  into  the  three 
co-ordinate  branches  of  Executive,  Legislative,  and  Judicial, 
each  nominally  independent  of  the  other,  after  the 
usual  Latin-American  model.  The  president,  vice-presi- 
dents, and  cabinet  of  eight  secretaries  of  state — those  of 
foreign  affairs;  interior;  justice;  public  instruction 
and  fine  arts ;  communication  and  public  works ; 
fomento,  colonisation  and  industry — form  the  Executive. 
The  Legislative  embodies  the  congress  of  two  Chambers — 
senators  and  deputies  ;  the  former  of  56  members,  two 
from  each  state,  elected  by  popular  vote  for  a  term  of  four 
years,  one-half  the  number  retiring  every  two  years ; 
and  the  latter  of  popular  representatives  elected  for  a  term 
of  two  years,  in  the  proportion  of  one  to  each  40,000  inhabi- 
tants. The  Judiciary  consists  in  a  Supreme  Court  of  Justice, 
three  circuit  courts,  and  thirty-two  district  courts ;  the 
first  containing  eleven  justices,  four  alternates,  a  "  fiscal " 
or  public  prosecutor,  and  the  attorney-general ;  all  of 
whom  are  elected  by  popular  vote  for  a  term  of  six  years. 
All  Mexican  citizens  who  are  in  possession  of  ordinary  or 
honest  means  of  livelihood  possess  the  vote. 

The  republic  is  divided  into  twenty-seven  states,  three 
territories,  and  the  federal  district,  whose  governments  are 
organised  on  lines  similar  to  the  federal  government.  Each 
state  has  its  own  governor,  legislative  body,  and  law  courts. 
The  states  are  subdivided  mto  districts,  governed  by  a 
jefe-politico  or  prefect,  and  below  this  official  a  municipality. 

The  states  and  territories,  with  their  capital  cities  and 
approximate  populations  are : 

States                            Area  Population      Capital 
Sq.  Miles. 

Aguascalientes                      2,950  105,000     Aguascalientes 

Campeche     ..          ..         18,087  90,000     Campeche 

Chiapas         ..          ..        27,222  370,000     Tuxtla  Gutierrez 


THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  MEXICO 


385 


States 

Chihuahua    . . 
Coahuila 
CoHma 
Durango 
Guanajuato  . . 
Guerrero 
Hidalgo 
Jalisco 
Mexico 

MichoacAn     . . 
Morelos 
Neuvo  Leon 
Oaxaca 
Puebia 
Queretaro 
San  Luis  Potosi 
Sinalva 
Sonora 
Tabasco 
Tamaulipas 
Tlaxcala 
Veru  Cruz 
Yucatan 
Zacatecas 
Distrito  Federal 
Territories : — ■ 
Baja  California 
Tepic 

Quintana  Roo 
Islands 


Area 

Population      Capital 

Sq.  Miles 

87,802 

330,000 

Chihuahua 

63,569 

300,000 

Saltillo 

2,272 

68,000 

Colima 

38,009 

375.000 

Durango 

11,370 

1,200,000 

Guanajuato 

24,996 

481,000 

Chilpancingo 

8,917 

607,000 

Pachuca 

31.846 

1,300,000 

Guadalajara 

9,247 

940,000 

Toluca 

22,874 

941,000 

Morelia 

2,773 

165,000 

Cuernavaca 

23,592 

330,000 

Monterry 

35.382 

950,000 

Oaxaca 

12,204 

1,200,000 

Puebia 

3.556 

235,000 

Querataro 

25,316 

560,000 

San  Luis  Potosi 

33.671 

300,000 

Culiacan 

76,900 

223,000 

Hermosillo 

10,075 

162,000 

San  Juan  Bautista 

32.128 

220,000 

Ciudad  Victoria 

1.595 

175,000 

Tlaxcala 

29,201 

985,000 

Jalapa 

35.203 

312,000 

Merida 

24,747 

465,000 

Zacatecas 

463 

550,000 

Mexico 

. .        58.328 

50,000 

La  Paz 

11.275 

155,000 

Tepic 

1,420 

Santa  Cruz  de  Bravo 

The  Mexican  people  have  shewn  marked  aptitude  for 
advancement  whenever  educational  facilities  have  been 
afforded  them.  The  native  Indian  races  have  produced 
some  of  the  leading  men  in  the  history  of  the  repubhc. 
The  famous  president  Juarez  was  a  pure-blooded  Indian  of 
Oaxaca,  a  clever  lawyer  and  statesman,  and  Poriirio  Diaz 
is  partly  of  Indian  descent. 

The  educational  laws  of  Mexico  provide  for  free,  com- 
pulsory, and  non-sectarian  primary  instruction  ;  and 
preparatory  courses  for  professional  training  in  the  govern- 
ment schools  is  also  free  and  secular.  In  1904  the  official 
report  included  over  9,000  public  schools,  about  two- 
thirds  of  which  were  maintained  by  the  national  and  state 
governments,  with  about  650,000  pupils,  and  the  remainder 
by  the  municipalities;   and  there  were  over  2,000  private, 

BB 


386  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 

religious,  and  Association  schools,  with  136,000  pupils. 
The  national  and  state  schools  for  secondary  instruction  num- 
bered thirty-six,  and  for  professional  instruction  sixty-five, 
with  a  number  of  normal  schools  for  the  training  of  teachers, 
all  maintained  at  the  public  expense.  The  normal  and 
industrial  and  mechanics'  training  schools,  the  latter  known 
as  "  Artes  y  Oficios,"  for  both  sexes,  perform  a  very  important 
service.  The  government  also  maintains  schools  of  law, 
medicine,  agriculture,  veterinary  practice,  commerce, 
engineering,  mining,  music  and  fine  arts,  and  admin- 
istration. The  scientific  organisations,  including  the  Geogra- 
phical Society,  Geological  Society,  Association  of  Engineers 
and  Architects,  Society  of  Natural  History,  and  others, 
are  valuable  national  institutions.  The  old  University 
of  Mexico,  founded  in  1553,  with  faculties  of  law  and  medicine, 
ceased  to  exist  in  1865,  and  was  succeeded  by  the  pro- 
fessional schools  maintained  by  the  government,  which 
have  been  very  successful.  The  proportion  of  illiterate 
people  in  Mexico,  however,  is  very  high,  having  been  in  1895 
nearly  85  per  cent.  This  has  been  reduced  since,  and 
education  has  entered  upon  a  more  progressive  phase  in 
the  republic,  and  a  large  number  of  schools  have  been 
erected  since  that  time,  some  of  considerable  architectural 
pretensions.  Apart  from  the  great  national  library  in  the 
capital,  there  are  about  150  other  public  libraries  throughout 
the  country,  thirty-four  museums,  and  a  number  of  meteoro- 
logical observatories. 

The  Mexican  people  are  almost  entirely  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  faith,  but  the  constitution  permits  the  exercise  of 
other  religions.  The  census  of  1900  shewed  13,500,000 
communicants  of  the  Romish  church,  about  52,000  Protes- 
tants, mostly  foreigners,  4,000  of  other  faiths,  and  nearly 
19,000  professing  no  faith.  A  considerable  number  of 
the  Indians  are  semi-pagan,  and  worship  in  secret  their 
ancient  gods ;  whilst  such  Roman  Catholicism  as  they  do 
profess  is  often  greatly  mixed  with  superstition,  a  singular 
medley  of  ancestral  customs  and  Romish  ceremonies  resulting. 
Bands  of  fanatic  Indians  are  still  occasionally  to  be  seen  in 
remote  districts,  crawling  for  leagues  upon  their  knees,  the  way 


THE  UNITED  STATES   OF  MEXICO         387 

marked  with  blood-tracks,  towards  some  Catholic  hill-shrine  ; 
but  these  processions  are  prohibited  by  law,  as  are  the  weird 
native  religious  dances  and  carousals,  although  stiU  freely 
practised  in  some  regions.  Toleration  of  the  Protestant 
faith  is  sufficiently  established,  and  there  are  a  few  churches  ; 
and  the  times  have  changed  since,  half  a  century  ago  or 
less,  it  was  necessary  for  a  foreigner,  walking  along  the 
streets  of  the  capital  at  religious  feast  times,  to  pretend  to 
mutter  a  prayer,  lest  he  might  be  molested.  The  country 
is  still,  however,  a  stronghold  of  CathoHcism,  the  most 
powerful  organisation  in  the  country,  and  the  priest  an  object 
of  veneration  :  although  there  is  an  increasing  class  of 
educated  Mexicans  who  have  discarded  religion — a  reaction 
to  materiaUsm  such  as  is  noticeable  in  certain  other  Latin 
American  republics.  The  Church  has  been  greatly  reformed 
since  the  time  in  1859,  when  it  owned  one-third  of  the  real 
and  personal  property  of  the  republic,  and  was  a  powerful 
retrograde  and  crushing  machine.  It  compassed  its  own 
downfall,  which  Juarez  assured.  The  Inquisition  was 
active  in  Mexico  for  two  and  a  half  centuries,  and  in  1574 
twenty-one  "  pestilent  Lutherans "  were  burned  ahve. 
This  appalling  institution  of  the  Old  World  was  suppressed 
in  1820.  At  the  present  time  there  are  three  archdioceses  : 
at  Mexico,  Michoacan  and  Guadalajara. 

The  upper-class  Mexicans  are  by  nature  strongly  artistic, 
musical,  and  scientific,  and  the  learned  professions  are 
freely  followed.  Doctors  of  law,  medicine,  divinity,  and 
science  abound,  with  the  same  profusion  as  in  Brazil 
and  South  America  generally ;  but  the  mechanical 
and  practical  trades  are  less  attractive,  with  a  consequent 
dearth  of  skilled  foremen  and  workers.  To  belong  to  the 
learned  professions,  to  be  a  "  doctor,"  is  a  strong  ambition 
of  the  Mexican  upper-class  youth ;  and  the  old  prejudice 
that  manual  work  cannot  be  performed  by  the  cahallero 
still  holds  strongly.  Commerce,  mainly  in  the  form  of  the 
import  of  foreign  articles  and  the  maintaining  of  large  stores 
on  the  principal  streets,  is  a  source  of  wealth  to  the  upper 
class.  Modern  business  establishments  of  this  nature  are 
numerous,  and  the  shops  and  stores  of  the  city  of  Mexico 


388  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH   AMERICA 

are  in  some  instances  the  equal  of  such  in  European  cities. 
But  this  form  of  business  is  not  held  to  be  derogatory  to  the 
upper  class.  The  large  store  or  "  magasin  "  is  held  to  be  a 
very  different  affair  to  the  smaller  shop,  or  "  tienda  " — a 
condition  not  unknown  in  other  lands — and  to  keep  the 
first  does  not  necessarily  involve  loss  of  social  standing. 
Mexicans  are  generally  good  men  of  business,  and  carry 
their  refinement  and  courtesy  into  their  counting-houses. 

Social  distinctions,  as  elsewhere  observed,  are  very 
marked  in  Mexico,  and  the  term  "  republic  "  sounds  strangely 
in  the  ears  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  who  has  associated  the 
term  with  the  chief  American  republic  of  the  United  States. 
]\Iexico  is  a  republic  little  more  than  in  name — yet  there  is 
something  of  the  democracy  of  imperialism  and  noblesse 
oblige  abroad  in  the  body  politic.  But  wealth  is  too  highly 
regarded  and  respected.  The  clerical  and  conservative 
element  is  still  strong,  and  is  both  a  safeguard  and  a  retro- 
grade force.  The  old,  exclusive  race  which  centred  about 
the  viceregal  rule,  and  the  empire  later,  dies  hard.  The 
progressive  element  under  Porfirio  Diaz  flourished  for  a 
considerable  period,  and  is  still  dominant ;  but  during  all 
that  time  the  extreme  Church  party  remained  subordinate 
and  protesting ;  resisting,  when  it  could,  the  privileges 
showered  upon  the  foreign  capitalist,  the  railway  builders  and 
concessionaires,  an  element  which  has  been  so  strongly  marked 
a  feature  of  the  development  of  the  country  during  the  past 
quarter  of  a  century,  and  from  which  in  part  the  present 
revolutionary  condition  is  a  reaction.  The  "  era  of  glorious 
progress,"  as  the  Diaz  period  was  termed  at  its  apogee,  has 
not  been  unquestioned.  It  was  of  great  value  in  certain 
respects,  but  failed  in  the  estabhshment  of  a  Mexican  demo- 
cracy. Peonage  and  poverty  were  insufficientl}^  studied  by 
that  autocratic  regimen. 

The  Mexicans  display  the  grandiloquent  methods  in 
their  pubhc  oratory  and  the  Press  characteristic  of  the  Latin 
American  race  generally.  The  adulation  of  prominent 
personages  and  strong  partisanship  on  political  occasions 
often  outweighs  the  saner  side  of  public  affairs  ;  and  the 
control  of  administrative  posts  is  kept  in  the  hands  of  the 


THE   UNITED   STATES   OF  MEXICO  389 

favoured  few.  As  for  the  city  youth,  government  clerkships 
or  employment  are  the  most  coveted  sources  of  occupation, 
or,  failing  that,  if  influence  or  standing  to  secure  such  are 
lacking,  service  behind  the  counters  of  the  numerous  drapery 
stores  is  sought ;  for  both  the  gilded  and  middle-class  youth 
of  Mexico,  after  the  Latin  American  nature  generally,  is 
to  a  large  extent  lacking  in  energy  and  prone  to  licentious- 
ness and  ease.  But  towards  middle  age  greater  vigour  appears 
in  the  Mexican  character,  and  more  marked  commercial 
or  political  ability.  Furthermore,  there  is  a  Mexican  element 
which  furnishes  able  writers,  journalists,  poets,  scientists, 
lawyers  and  administrators,  and  embodies  a  high  standard 
of  merit  and  enterprise. 

The  women  of  Mexico  have  deservedly  been  accorded 
high  praise  for  their  good  qualities.  Among  the  upper 
class  their  refinement,  vivacity,  and  attractive  presence 
lend  much  distinction  to  Mexican  society,  and  as  wives  and 
mothers  these  women  of  the  Latin  race  compare  well  with 
any  people  in  the  world.  The  quaint  customs,  the  constant 
presence  and  influence  of  the  priest  and  the  Church,  the  music, 
flowers,  and  pleasing  surroundings  which  are  elements  of 
their  life,  conserve  feminine  traits  and  qualities,  which  give 
to  Mexican  womanhood  an  attraction  and  special  atmosphere 
which  changing  time  does  not  easily  dispel.  The  influence 
of  the  Church,  so  strong  in  Mexico,  is  the  Mexican  woman's 
special  kingdom.  A  racial  effect  of  the  religion  is  the 
general  absence  of  what  have  been  termed  neo-Malthusian 
practices,  or  "  race-suicide."  Physically,  perhaps,  no  more 
attractive  type  exists  in  Latin  America  than  these  sheltered 
beings  of  a  leisured  class,  with  their  expressive  eyes  and 
luxuriant  hair  and  oval  type  of  face.  These  good  qualities 
are  to  some  extent  reflected  among  the  women  of  humbler 
classes.  They  are  hard-working  and  characterised  by  native 
modesty,  and  are  generally  devout,  although  their  religion 
is  not  unmixed  with  superstition.  As  regards  their  appear- 
ance the  women  of  the  lower  classes  are  often  soft  and 
attractive,  brown  of  complexion  and  with  plentiful  black 
hair.     Often  the  Indian  women  are  handsome. 

The  great  bulk  of  the  Mexican  nation  is  formed  of  the 


390  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

peon  class,  the  agricultural  and  mining  labourers,  whose 
white  cotton  dress,  scarlet  zarapes,  distinctive  hats  and 
sandalled  feet,  give  a  unique  character  to  the  country-side, 
They  are  an  exceedingly  hardy  and  generally  docile  race, 
capable,  however,  of  showing  extreme  passion,  which  trans- 
lates itself  into  bloodshed  upon  small  provocation.  They 
have,  in  the  past  history  of  the  country,  been  looked  upon  as 
mere  material  for  revolutionary  arms,  and  in  times  of  peace 
as  tillers  of  the  soil  or  workers  in  the  mine  for  the  enrich- 
ment of  an  employer  class  ;  and  their  nomenclature  of 
"  peon  "  indicates  the  semi-serfdom  under  which  they  dwell. 
They  are  in  reality  a  race  with  many  good  qualities,  and  have 
undoubtedly  an  important  future  before  them  as  soon  as 
more  equitable  conditions  of  life  may  be  brought  about. 
The  peons  of  Mexico  number  many  millions  of  people,  and 
f  ormthe  most  numerous  working-class  body  of  a  homogeneous 
nature  in  Latin  America,  and  are,  or  ought  to  be,  considered 
the  most  valuable  of  national  assets.  Wealth  in  Mexico 
ought  to  be  "  life  "  rather  than  cash,  and  no  real  progress 
will  be  attained  until  this  truth  be  recognised.  But  the 
food  and  housing  of  this  class  are  of  the  most  primitive 
character.  In  the  towns  and  upon  the  better  class  of  the 
haciendas  or  estates,  mud  huts  and  houses,  without  any 
pretensions  to  comfort,  form  their  dwellings,  and  among 
the  very  poor,  wattle  huts  or  "  jacales  "  in  great  part.  The 
family  pot  is  often  boiled  on  a  fireplace  of  rude  stones  out- 
side, and  its  contents  are  generally  lacking  in  meat,  which 
is  scarce  or  too  costly  for  them.  The  well-known  "  tortilla," 
or  pancake  of  maize  flour,  ground  by  each  housewife  in  a 
"  metate  "  is  the  only  form  of  bread  within  their  reach. 
Beans  and  chillies  are  the  alternative  staple  articles  of  diet, 
and  upon  these  simple  foods  the  peons  labour  in  the  fields 
or  the  mines  from  daylight  to  dark.  The  occasional  bull- 
fight, or  more  or  less  drunken  carouses,  interposed  with  the 
numerous  Church  festivals,  form  their  principal  sources  of 
diversion,  for  of  literature,  sport,  or  travel  as  enjoyed  by  the 
working  classes  of  Europe  the  agricultural  labourer  and 
miner  has  none.  The  Mexican  is  often  revengeful  and  blood- 
thirsty when  aroused  by  the  passions  of  jealousy  in  amatory 


THE  UNITED  STATES   OF  MEXICO         391 

matters,  and  by  drink,  which  are  generally  the  cause  of 
the  constant  brawls  and  cases  of  homicide  among  the 
peons.  Homicide  is  very  frequent,  and  in  these  character- 
istics they  resemble  the  Chilean  roto  somewhat,  or  the  gaucho 
of  the  South  American  pampas.  Of  a  strong,  crude, 
valuable  human  material  the  country  is  well  suppUed,  in 
the  lower  element  and  working  class. 

That  the  Mexicans  are  a  lighting  race  has  been  borne 
out  by  their  revolutionary  history.  They  combine  two 
warlike  elements — the  fierce  Aztecs  whose  sanguinary  religion 
and  priesthood  animated  them  in  early  times,  and  the 
Spanish  Conquistadores,  between  whom  the  country  suffered 
a  terrible  baptism  of  blood.  The  warlike  spirit  which 
even  the  taming  method  of  commerce,  which  is  insistently 
knocking  at  the  gates  of  Mexico,  cannot  banish,  is  reflected 
in  their  national  anthem  :  "  Mexicans  !  the  voice  of  war  ; 
draw  sword  and  grasp  the  bridle,  and  the  very  caves  shall 
resound  at  the  sonorous  roar  of  your  cannon  !  " — as  one 
verse  of  the  song  may  be  freely  translated.  Whether  they 
wiU  ever  develop  into  a  manufacturing  people  is  doubtful. 
As  knowledge  of  their  democratic  rights  advances  they  may 
be  expected  to  demand  these  to  the  full,  but  as  yet  they  are 
scarcely  awakening  to  such,  or  to  any  organisation  for  the 
betterment  of  labour.  Nevertheless,  during  recent  years 
there  were  serious  strikes  in  the  cotton,  woollen,  and  jute 
mills  in  the  federal  district,  and  in  Orizaba,  AtUxco, 
Puebla  and  elsewhere,  and  more  than  30,000  men  were 
idle  as  a  result.  Several  thousand  men  made  a  demonstra- 
tion in  the  capital :  a  procession  carrying  banners,  with 
"  Shorter  Hours  "  and  "  Better  Pay  "  inscribed  thereon. 
In  the  outlying  states,  upon  some  of  the  ranches,  the  workers 
presented  petitions  to  the  governor  of  the  states,  asking 
for  a  scale  of  wages  proportionate  to  their  work,  instead 
of  the  uniform  wage  of  37  cents  per  day,  equal  to 
about  9jd.,  which  is  their  customary  pay.  There  was  a 
further  strike  in  the  city  of  Mexico,  concerning  the  rein- 
statement of  a  worker  who  had  been  dismissed ;  and, 
at  the  close  of  1912,  the  employes  on  the  Mexican  railway, 
to  the  number  of  7,000,  went  on  strike,  demanding  an  eight- 


392  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 

hour  day,  a  pension  system,  and  other  improvements  in 
their  working  hfe.  Thus  some  progress  in  the  knowledge 
of  their  rights  is  indicated ;  and  men  who  can  strike  for  their 
industrial  betterment,  just  as  they  fought  for  national 
freedom,  prove  themselves  neither  apathetic  nor  de- 
generate. 

The  principal  sources  of  amusement  of  the  Mexican  people 
are  in  bull-fights,  theatres,  horse-racing,  lotteries,  and  other 
matters  into  which  an  acute  or  gambling  element  enters. 
Horse-racing  has  become  a  sport  of  the  wealthy  classes, 
as  in  South  America,  and  the  racecourse  is  thronged  with 
well-dressed  people  in  the  seasons.  But  the  sanguinary 
spectacle  of  the  "  corrida  de  toros  "  or  bull-fight  still  remains 
the  national  sport,  appealing  strongly  to  the  lower  element, 
and,  if  in  a  somewhat  diminishing  degree,  to  the  upper. 
These  "  funciones  "  are  fully  attended  by  frock-coated  men 
and  finely-dressed  seiioras  and  sefioritas,  who  applaud 
each  phase  of  the  contest,  regardless  of  its  cruel  character, 
and  of  the  evil  effect  it  has  upon  the  morals  of  the  peon 
class,  who  crowd  thereto  in  their  thousands.  The  full 
ceremony  and  show  of  the  Spanish  bull-fight  is  exhibited 
at  these  performances,  which  customarily  take  place  on 
Sunday  afternoon,  after  the  solemn  religious  observances 
of  the  morning.  The  huge  ampitheatre  around  the  bull- 
ring is  divided  into  the  "  Sol  "  and  "  Sombra  "  or  sun  and 
shade,  the  first  containing  the  cheap  seats  for  the  lower  class, 
the  second  the  reserved  seats  for  the  elite.  The  gaudily- 
dressed  "  toreros  "  and  "  picadores  " — some  of  the  former 
mighty  heroes,  at  least  in  the  popular  estimation — enter 
amid  a  roar  of  applause  from  the  sea  of  spectators  around 
the  great  circle  of  the  arena  ;  the  first  bull  is  admitted, 
charges,  and  is  played  and  goaded  to  madness,  and  the 
unfortunate  horses,  at  times  gored  and  with  their  entrails 
protruding,  give  up  their  miserable  lives  to  an  accompani- 
ment of  popular  frenzy  or  indifference,  according  to  the 
character  of  the  fight  sustained  by  their  riders.  At  times 
the  wound  in  the  horse's  bowels  is  hastily  sewed  up,  and  with 
a  picador  on  his  back,  armed  with  huge  spurs,  another  tug- 
ging at  his  bridle  and  a  further  one  behind  him  with  a  whip, 


THE  UNITED   STATES   OF  MEXICO  393 

the  poor  beast,  blindfolded  and  trembling,  faces  his  destruc- 
tion. As  many  as  ten  horses  at  times  are  gored  or  killed 
by  a  bull  which  is  really  "  bravo."  The  "  banderilleros  "— 
the  bearers  of  barbed,  decorated  darts — skillfully  place  these 
in  the  neck  of  the  maddened  bull,  facing  him  calmly,  which 
act  draws,  when  successfully  performed,  roars  of  applause  ; 
and  the  "  capeadores  "  make  "  pretty  "  play  with  their 
scarlet  cloaks  in  feint  and  retreat.  Not  unfrequently  these 
actors  in  the  drama  are  injured  or  killed  by  the  infuriated 
bull.  Lastly  is  the  "  espada,"  the  leader  of  all  the  band 
of  fighters,  having,  perhaps,  a  reputation  earned  in  Madrid 
itself :  and  to  the  sound  of  low  and  mournful  music  he 
approaches  the  now  wearied  but  still  vigilant  and  infuriated 
bull,  and  deals  him  the  practised  stroke  which  lets  loose  the 
animal's  life-blood,  and  at  the  same  time  the  tumultuous 
applause  of  the  crowd. 

The  city  of  Mexico  has  certain  attributes  of  situation 
and  historical  tradition  which  entitle  it  to  rank  foremost 
among  the  Latin  American  capitals.  In  point  of  population 
it  comes  next  to  Buenos  Ayres.  The  city  stands  in  one  of 
the  finest  valleys  in  Latin  America — the  valley  of  Mexico, 
on  the  plateau  of  Anahuac,  forming  the  southerly  extremity 
of  the  great  Mesa,  or  tableland  of  Mexico,  whose  high  eleva- 
tion above  sea  level  has  placed  it  in  the  cool  or  temperate 
lands,  in  a  vigorous  climatic  environment.  Exceptionally 
romantic  lore  and  powerful  historic  tradition  centre  in  Mexico, 
such  as  no  other  city  in  the  New  World  possesses.  It  was 
the  seat  of  the  Aztec  civilisation,  and  in  its  broad  plaza 
stood  the  great  teocalh,  or  sacrificial  pyramid,  the  Mecca 
of  early  Mexico — Tenochtitlan,  almost  the  unconquer- 
able. After  the  Conquest  the  city  of  Mexico  was  the  seat 
of  the  viceroys  and  the  capital  of  "  New  Spain,"  as  Cortes 
named  the  country,  whose  rule  covered  the  whole  of 
Mexico,  part  of  Central  America,  and  extended  to  what  now 
are  the  American  states  of  CaHfornia,  Texas,  Arizona,  and 
others.  Under  the  transient  rule  of  the  emperor  Iturbide 
the  city  of  Mexico  was  the  capital  of  the  third  largest  empire 
in  the  world,  being  less  in  area  only  than  the  Russian  and 
Chinese  empires.      Following  upon  Iturbide  came  Juarez, 


394  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 

the  famous  Indian  lawyer-president,  and  Hidalgo  and 
Morelos,  the  liberators,  two  of  the  most  renowned  figures 
in  the  history  of  the  country.  Lastly,  the  pathetic  figure 
of  Maximiliano  of  Austria  arose,  succeeded  by  the  command- 
ing personality  of  the  dictator  Diaz  :  who  himself,  entering 
at  the  bayonet's  point,  went  out  in  a  shower  of  bullets. 
The  massacre  of  the  Aztecs,  the  terrible  struggles  of  Cortes 
and  his  band  against  the  lake  fortress,  the  fires  of  the 
Inquisition,  the  rule  of  the  viceroys,  beneficial  and  male- 
volent by  turns,  the  long  years  of  fratricidal  struggle  and 
proniinciamientos  after  independence — all  these  have  left 
their  mark  or  written  their  traditions  upon  the  handsome 
and  romantic  city  of  the  Mexican  uplands,  where  the 
modem  spirit  struggles  to  overcome  the  mediaeval. 

The  city  of  Mexico  is,  in  general,  of  spacious  and  pleasing 
aspect.  The  great  plaza  or  zocalo,  the  public  square  which 
forms  its  centre,  and  which  is  nearly  700  feet  in  length, 
is  overlooked  upon  its  principal  side  by  the  handsomest 
and  most  massive  cathedral  found  in  the  whole  community 
of  Latin  American  states.  The  two  great  towers  of  this 
cathedral,  rising  to  more  than  200  feet,  are  conspicuous 
landmarks  when  beheld  from  the  environs  of  the  city,  and 
the  fine  facades  bear  witness  to  the  skill  and  care  which  its 
Spanish  builders  lavished  upon  this  most  representative 
example  of  ecclesiastical  architecture  in  the  New  World. 
The  building  is  more  than  400  feet  long,  and  nearly  200  feet 
wide,  and  the  interior,  in  the  general  form  of  a  Greek  cross, 
contains  two  great  naves  and  three  aisles,  with  twenty-two 
side  chapels  and  a  resplendent  altar  with  marble  columns, 
a  balustrade  with  sixty-two  statues  and  giant  candelabra 
of  gold,  silver,  and  copper  alloy.  Twenty  Doric  columns 
support  the  vaulted  roof  ;  rich  carvings,  gildings,  and  some 
rare  paintings  adorn  the  walls.  The  religious  character  of 
the  city  under  the  Spaniards  was  well  exemplified  in  the 
cathedral,  and  in  the  sixty  other  massive  churches  through- 
out the  city,  as  well  as  in  the  other  religious  edifices, 
originally  more  than  120  in  number — including  convents  and 
monasteries,  many  of  which  were  turned  over  to  secular 
purposes  at  the  time  of  the  Reform. 


THE  UNITED   STATES  OF  MEXICO         395 

The  city  is  laid  out  with  geometrical  regularity,  the 
streets  oriented,  many  of  them  wide  and  handsome,  others — 
and  among  them  the  principal  business  thoroughfare,  that 
of  Plateros — narrow.  The  Calle  de  Plateros  or  "  Street  of 
Silversmiths,"  however,  is  lined  with  shops  whose  display 
attests  the  luxurious  taste  and  wealth  of  the  upper  Mexican 
element.  On  the  east  side  of  the  plaza  is  the  Palacio 
Nacional,  containing  the  government  offices,  the  senate 
chamber,  archives,  national  museum,  observatory,  and  other 
institutions,  a  building  covering  some  ten  acres  of  ground  ; 
and  over  its  main  portals  hangs  the  "  liberty  bell  "  of 
Hidalgo,  the  Mexican  hero  who,  a  humble  parish  priest, 
first  aroused  with  his  famous  "  grito,"  or  cry  for  civic  and 
religious  liberty,  the  national  spirit  of  independence  which 
culminated  in  the  throwing-off  of  Spanish  rule.  This  bell 
is  rung,  on  each  anniversary  of  that  occasion,  by  the  president 
of  the  republic,  at  midnight.  The  Palacio  occupies  the  site 
of  the  great  palace  of  Moctezuma,  which  was  so  large  that 
the  Spaniards  of  Cortes,  who  afterwards  destroyed  the 
building,  complained  that  they  lost  their  way  in  its  rambling 
interior.  In  the  museum,  among  many  objects  of  the 
utmost  interest — not  only  to  archaeologists,  but  to  visitors 
and  observers  generally — is  preserved  the  famous  "  Calendar 
stone  "  or  "  Sun  stone  "  generally  assigned  to  Toltec  cul- 
ture, and  the  "  Sacrificial  stone  "  which  was  found  in  the 
ruins  of  the  great  teocalli.*  The  National  Library  is  a 
handsome  building,  containing  upwards  of  a  quarter  of  a 
million  books  ;  and  was  formerly  the  old  St.  Augustine 
church,  assigned  to  its  present  use  by  Juarez  in  1867. 
The  Mineria,  or  mining  and  engineering  school,  is  one  of  the 
primary  institutions  of  the  city,  and  the  former  palace  of 
Iturbide  is  a  fine  specimen  of  colonial  architecture,  now 
occupied  as  the  principal  hotel.  The  new  legislative  palace, 
new  post-office,  new  penitentiary,  palace  of  justice,  schools, 
and  university  are  the  outcome  of  modern  times,  handsome 
and  costly  structures  of  their  kind  ;  and  the  Jockey  Club 
is  a  further  representative  institution,  the  rendezvous  of 
fashion  in  Mexican  society  as  concerns  sport  and  club  life. 

»   Described  in  a  subsequent  chapter. 


396  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

The  Monte  de  Piedad,  or  National  Pawnshop,  is  perhaps  a 
unique  institution.  It  was  endowed  by  the  Conde  de  Regla 
in  1775,  and  its  function  is  to  grant  loans  to  the  people  upon 
personal  property,  a  system  regarded  as  a  boon  by  the  poor, 
who  are  thus  protected  from  the  methods  of  the  ordinary 
pawnbroker  and  treated  with  scrupulous  fairness  in  their  loan 
operations,  whether  of  the  humble  or  whether  of  the  neces- 
sitous "  rich  "  class.  The  operations  of  this  nature,  carried 
out  by  the  national  pawnshop  reach  at  times  the  sum  of 
£50,000  per  month. 

The  old  Spanish  buildings  in  Mexico,  both  in  the  capital 
and  in  the  large  towns  throughout  the  republic,  were  very 
solidly  constructed  of  cut  stone.  The  private  residences 
of  the  upper  class  were  defended  by  iron  gates,  massive 
doors,  and  grille-covered  windows,  giving  that  mediaeval 
aspect  to  the  streets  which  forms  so  notable  a  feature  of 
Spanish  American  towns,  and  capable  of  withstanding 
assaults — such  as,  indeed,  they  were  often  called  upon  to 
sustain,  and  which  service  they  may  yet  have  to  render  in 
the  evolution  of  Mexican  civic  life.  They  also  have  the 
customary  flat  roofs  or  azoteas,  with  parapets,  and  are 
built  around  open  courts  or  patios  in  the  Moorish  style, 
forming  pleasing  and  protected  retreats  for  the  occupants. 
In  these  old-style  residences  the  living-rooms  are  on  the 
upper  floor,  approached  by  a  handsome  staircase,  often  of 
marble,  adorned  with  palms  and  flowers  in  tubs,  the  lower 
being  occupied  by  shops,  stores,  and  servants'  quarters. 
There  are  numerous  smaller  plazas  throughout  the  city,  and 
a  large  alameda,  or  public  garden,  which  is  the  centre  of 
fashionable  promenade,  and  of  "  church  parade  "  on  the 
Sabbath  day.  Both  there  and  in  the  Zocalo,  or  main  plaza, 
military  bands  play,  but  the  plaza  is  a  popular  rendezvous 
rather  than  one  for  the  fashionable,  and  crowds  of  peons  and 
Indians  and  their  women  promenade  unceasingly  in  the 
square;  dressed  in  their  picturesque  costumes,  vari-coloured, 
and  typical,  high-crowned  Mexican  hats,  the  national  head- 
gear ;  smoking  unending  musk  cigarettes,  chatting  and  laugh- 
ing, greeting  their  friends  with  doffed  sombrero,  eating  native 
sweetmeats  and  drinking  "  pulque,"  the  national  drink,  for 


THE  UNITED   STATES   OF  MEXICO         397 

both  of  which  refreshments  there  are  numerous  vendors; 
buying — those  who  can  afford  it — the  cheap  lottery  tickets, 
the  shrill  cries  of  the  sellers  of  which  take  the  place  of  the 
strains  of  the  band  in  the  intervals — a  happy,  picturesque, 
malodorous  crowd,  in  showy  comparison  with  the  "  correct  " 
European  attire  and  deportment  of  the  upper  class.  There 
is  a  great  gulf  between  these  people  and  their  betters, 
strongly  accentuated  by  the  "  philosophy  of  clothes " 
as  represented  by  the  poncho  or  "  zarape  "  of  the  peon, 
and  the  coat  of  the  Europeanised  class  ;  and  the  tran- 
sitional stage  across  this  social  abyss  is  rarely  bridged.  The 
same  picture  is  presented  throughout  the  whole  of  the  re- 
public, from  the  federal  capital  to  the  capitals  of  the  states, 
and  to  the  most  remote  village. 

From  the  city  of  Mexico  a  broad  avenue  or  boulevard 
extends,  the  Paseo  de  la  Reforma,  running  south-west  for 
a  distance  of  three  miles  to  the  castle  of  Chapultepec, 
a  building  historically  famous,  set  upon  a  hill,  and  forming 
one  of  the  residences  of  the  president.  This  handsome 
drive,  one  of  the  most  noteworthy  in  Latin  America,  is 
lined  with  modem  dwellings  of  the  rich,  adorned  through- 
out its  length  with  statues  and  fountains,  and  shaded  by 
eucalyptus-trees  ;  and  it  is  crowded  on  the  Sabbath  day  with 
the  handsome  equipages  of  the  rich.  The  statues  include 
those  of  Columbus,  Juarez,  and  one  to  Guauhtemoc,  the  last 
Aztec  emperor,  who  suffered  torture  and  death  at  the  hands 
of  the  Spaniards.  There  is  no  statue,  it  is  to  be  noted,  to 
Cortes  in  Mexico,  just  as  in  Peru  there  is  none  to  Pizarro, 
a  fact  which  sufficiently  interprets  the  underlying  feeling 
towards  the  Conquistadores  of  Spain. 

The  older  suburbs,  or  adjoining  residential  centres  of  the 
city  of  Mexico,  such  as  Tacubaya,  San  Angel,  Tlalpam,  and 
others,  are  quaint  and  attractive  retreats  of  the  wealthy 
Mexicans,  and  many  of  the  houses  are  veritable  palaces, 
embowered  in  orange-groves,  luxuriant  gardens,  and  flowers, 
secluded  from  the  common  gaze,  and  more  aristocratic 
in  their  environment  perhaps  than  any  other  haunts  of  the 
rich  in  Latin  America.  Living  and  house  rents  in  the  city 
of  Mexico  are  extremely  high,  as  is  the  cost  of  imported 


398  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH   AMERICA 

articles,due  to  heavy  import  tarifts,and  the  cost  even  of  native 
produce  tends  to  rise.  The  rents  of  fiats,  or  "  viviendas," 
as  the  upper  and  lower  stories  of  the  town  houses  are  termed, 
in  which  a  large  part  of  the  upper  and  middle  class  dwell,  are 
exorbitant.  Rents  for  such,  or  for  ordinary  dwellings,  are 
more  expensive  than  similar  accommodation  in  British  or 
European  towns  would  demand.  A  movement  has  been 
made,  however,  of  late,  towards  cheaper  houses  in  the 
newer  suburbs,  which  the  extension  of  the  tramways 
facihtates,  but  the  phenomenon  of  high  cost  of  living  is 
almost  as  marked  in  the  Mexican  capital  as  in  Buenos  Ayres 
and  other  South  American  capitals.  In  their  newer  suburbs 
and  in  their  new  business  structures  the  Mexicans  have 
somewhat  lost  the  art  of  quaint  and  attractive  building  which 
characterises  the  older  work,  and  a  cheap  spirit  of  modernity 
or  commerciaUsm  begins  to  prevail. 

The  main  streets  in  the  city  are  served  by  an  efficient 
electric  tramway  system,  embodying  nearly  200  miles  of  line, 
which  extends  to  the  suburbs,  and  the  streets  are  hghted  by 
electric  hght.  The  systems  are  under  the  control  of  a  British 
company,  an  enterprise  of  a  prosperous  character,  which 
pays  a  good  interest  upon  its  considerable  capital,  due  partly 
to  the  love  of  indulging  in  jaunts  and  travelling  of  the  peon 
and  Indian  class,  who  crowd  the  third-class  vehicles  on  the 
"  dias  de  fiesta"  or  numerous  holidays;  and  it  is  their 
"  centavos  "  which  contribute  largely  towards  the  dividends 
reaped  by  the  British  shareholder. 

The  quaint  streets  and  good  residences  of  the  upper  class 
in  the  city  of  Mexico  give  place  to  extensive  "  slums," 
miserable  abodes  of  adobe  and  mud,  in  unpaved,  unsanitary 
streets,  mean  and  malodorous,  where  the  poor  dwell,  and 
in  certain  quarters  forming  the  haunts  of  the  outcasts  and 
criminals  of  both  sexes,  where  the  traveller  ventures  at  his 
peril,  or  accompanied  by  a  "  sereno  "  or  gendarme,  as  the 
native  policemen  are  termed.  Very  large  areas  of  the  city 
are  covered  by  the  dwellings  of  the  poor,  and  improvement 
in  this  respect  is  greatly  needed.  The  contrast  of  wealth 
and  poverty  in  the  Mexican  city  is  extremely  marked,  with 
half-clad  Indians  and  beggars  in  the  streets  mixing  with  the 
Europeanised  classes. 


THE   UNITED   STATES   OF   MEXICO         399 

The  high  cost  of  hving  in  Mexico  is  not  confined  to  the 
capital,  nor  to  any  particular  class,  but  exists  in  other  places, 
and  among  the  poor.  In  Vera  Cruz  it  has  steadily  advanced, 
and  there  seems  no  prospect  that  it  will  fall  to  its  former 
level.  As  is  always  the  case,  wages  and  salaries  have  not 
kept  pace  with  the  increased  cost  of  living,  and  as  house 
rents  have  doubled  and  even  trebled  during  the  last  twenty 
years,  people  in  even  moderate  circumstances  find  living 
difficult.  The  ordinary  labourer,  although  he  lives  prin- 
cipally on  beans,  rice,  maize,  cheap  cuts  of  meat,  when  he 
can  afford  any,  coffee,  when  able  to  buy  such,  tortillas, 
and  chillies,  is  often  obliged  to  stint  himself  and  family 
severely.  In  the  smaller  towns,  however,  the  cost  of  food 
is  not  generally  high,  although  rents  and  imported  articles 
are  disproportionately  expensive.  One  dish  is  the  usual 
rule  for  each  meal,  which  is  generally  finished  up  with  a 
mess  of  beans.  Bread  is  not  very  largely  used,  although 
becoming  more  common  ;  but  in  general  the  poor  people 
prefer  the  tortillas,  made  from  maize  flour.  The  cost  of  the 
articles  most  generally  used  by  the  lower  middle  classes, 
such  as  bacon,  meat,  and  so  forth,  commodities  which  lie 
generally  out  of  the  power  of  the  ordinary  labourer  to 
buy,  have  all  risen  greatly. 

Beheld  from  the  hills  which  form  the  rim  of  the  valley 
of  Mexico — in  places  clothed  with  health-giving  pine-woods 
— the  capital  and  its  environment  unfold  pleasingly  to 
the  eye.  The  domes  and  towers  of  the  many  churches, 
Chapultepec  and  its  hill  of  venerable  cypresses,  the  cultivated 
fields  and  running  streams,  the  embowered  smaller  towns 
and  hamlets,  such  as  San  Angel,  Tlalpam,  Tacubaya,  and 
others,  the  green  alfalfa  patches  and  maguey  plantations, 
intersected  by  the  white,  dusty  roads  leading  to  the 
haciendas  and  away  to  the  hills,  all  overlooked  by  the  two 
snowy  peaks  of  Ixtacihuatl  and  Popocatepetl,  and  backed 
by  the  blue  upland  sky,  form  a  picture  typically  Mexican. 
A  short  distance  from  the  capital  lies  Guadalupe,  the 
Lourdes  of  Mexico,  the  famous  shrine,  built  on  the  spot 
where  to  the  poor  Indian  Juan  there  appeared — miracle 
or  fable — the  vision  of  the  Virgin,  and  where,  since  that  time. 


400  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 

miraculous  or  fabulous  cures  of  the  halt   and  the  blind 
are  effected. 

There  are,  however,  barren  wastes  within  the  valley, 
great  lava-flows  of  an  earlier  age,  and  swamps  and  marshes 
on  the  shores  of  lake  Texcoco.  This  great  lake,  some 
distance  from  whose  shores  the  capital  lies,  is  a  somewhat 
dreary  waste  of  brackish  water  which  was  formerly  of 
much  greater  extent,  and  in  times  gone  by  frequently 
flooded  the  city  and  brought  destruction  to  its  inhabitants. 
The  valley  of  Mexico  is,  or  was  until  the  drainage  canal 
and  tunnel  conducting  the  overflow  of  the  lake  to  the 
gulf  watershed  was  constructed  some  fifteen  years  ago,  a 
closed  hydrographic  basin,  with  no  natural  outlet  for  its 
waters.  Hydraulic  works  for  regulating  the  lake  were 
begun  by  the  Aztecs  previous  to  the  Conquest,  and  later  an 
enormous  cutting  was  begun,  but  never  completed ;  and  suc- 
cessive viceroys  afterwards  strove  to  accomplish  the  same 
enterprise.  But  it  remained  for  modern  science  to  carry 
the  work  out,  with  a  firm  of  British  contractors,  and  the 
drainage  of  the  sewage-impregnate  subsoil  of  the  capital 
followed.  The  canal  is  thirty  miles  long,  with  a  tunnel 
six  miles  long,  and  the  work  cost  the  government  more  than 
16,000,000  silver  dollars.  The  outflow  actuates  a  hydro- 
electric power  station.  Forming  part  of  the  lake  system 
of  the  valley  are  the  beautiful  lakes  of  Chalco  and  Xochi- 
milco — the  latter  meaning  "a  field  of  flowers" — and 
connected  therewith  is  the  famous  Aztec  Viga  canal,  and 
the  so-called  "  floating  gardens,"  composed  of  patches 
of  land  built  up  in  the  swamps  and  bearing  a  profuse 
harvest  of  flowers  and  vegetables.  It  has  recently  been 
proposed  to  drain  the  great  lake  Texcoco,  and  its  reclamation 
would  yield,  it  is  calculated,  some  100,000  acres  of  fertile  land, 
which  would  be  divided  into  small  farms  and  sold  to  the 
people.  The  examination  made  by  the  government  engineers 
shews  that  the  work  of  drainage  would  occupy  twenty- 
five  years,  and  would  necessitate  the  lowering  of  the  great 
drainage  tunnel  some  thirty  centimetres,  as  its  present 
level  is  scarcely  below  the  level  of  the  lake  bottom.  It  is 
calculated  that  two  years  would  be  required  for  the  actual 


THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  MEXICO         401 

emptying  of  the  lake,  which  would  be  allowed  to  fill  and 
empty  alternately  until  the  salt  were  eliminated.  The  rivers 
which  flow  into  it,  and  which  bring  down  a  sediment  every 
year,  would  fill  in  the  bed  with  silt  and  clay,  forming  fertile 
lands,  capable  of  yielding  an  increased  food-supply  for  the 
city. 

At  the  time  when  the  Aztecs  flourished,  at  the  advent 
of  Cortes,  the  lakes  in  the  valley  of  Mexico  were  much 
more  extensive,  and  the  city  was  surrounded  by  water  and 
almost  impregnable;  reached  by  stone  causeways  across 
the  lake,  which  the  Spaniards  traversed  at  the  invitation 
of  Moctezuma ;  and  upon  which  many  of  them  perished 
in  the  terrible  retreat  of  the  "  Noche  Triste."  On  their 
retreat,  broken  and  spiritless,  they  passed  beneath  the 
shadow  of  the  great  pyramid  of  the  sun,  of  Teotihuacan, 
which  even  then  rose  from  the  desert  ruined  and  desolate, 
its  builders  unknown  even  to  the  Aztecs  themselves.  For, 
even  the  Aztecs  were  at  that  time  comparatively  new-comers 
in  the  valley,  and  the  pyramids  were  the  work  of  a  much 
earher  age,  as  described  later. 

Puebla  is  the  second  city  of  importance  in  the  repubhc, 
and  the  capital  of  the  state  of  the  same  name.  It  is  situated 
on  the  banks  of  the  Atoyac  river,  sixty  miles  south-east  of 
the  city  of  Mexico,  and  is  a  community  of  striking  order- 
liness, and  distinguished  by  its  clean,  handsome  streets  and 
fine  buildings.  The  population  is  about  120,000,  including 
a  large  percentage  of  Indians,  and  it  is  connected  by  two 
lines  of  railway  with  the  city  of  Mexico,  and  with  Vera 
Cruz,  Pachuca,  Oaxaca,  and  the  terminal  ports  of  the 
Tehuantepec  railway — Coatzacoalcos  and  Salina  Cruz.  The 
city  is  built  on  a  broad,  healthy  plain,  about  7,200  feet 
above  sea  level,  and  is  well  provided  with  street  railways, 
electric  and  gas  illumination,  and  water  and  drainage 
systems.  The  great  Doric  cathedral,  which  was  completed 
in  1649,  is  among  the  finest  ecclesiastical  structures  in 
Latin  America,  and  among  other  churches  famous  for  their 
lavish  decorations  are  those  of  San  Jose,  San  Cristobal, 
Santa  Catarina,  and  San  Domingo.  The  principal  theatre, 
built  in  1790,  is  said  to  be  the  oldest  existing  theatre  on  the 

cc 


402  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 

continent,  and  there  is  an  immense  bull-ring.  Among  the 
principal  public  buildings  are  the  Palace  of  Justice,  the 
buildings  of  the  State  Legislature,  a  school  of  medicine, 
a  library  with  over  100,000  volumes,  an  academy  of 
fine  arts,  and  the  National  College.  At  Fort  Guadalupe, 
near  the  city,  there  are  several  hot  sulphur  springs,  which  are 
used  for  medicinal  baths.  Puebla  is  one  of  the  busiest 
manufacturing  cities  in  Mexico,  and  among  its  principal 
products  are  cotton  and  woollen  textiles  from  the  well- 
established  mills,  generally  actuated  by  water  power  from 
the  river  :  and  there  are  also  some  large  foundries.  The 
manufacturing  element,  however,  has  not  been  permitted 
to  spoil  the  general  character  of  the  city,  which  remains  a 
source  of  pride  to  its  inhabitants  and  of  some  admiration 
to  the  foreigner,  who  in  general  is  unaware  of  the  existence 
in  southern  Mexico  of  so  advanced  a  centre  of  population. 
The  history  of  Puebla  is  closely  bound  up  with  the  political 
development  of  the  republic,  and  its  environs  have  been 
the  scene  of  fierce  revolutionary  struggles. 

The  snowy  peak  of  Popocatepetl,  which  overlooks  the 
city  of  Mexico  and  is  seen  also  from  the  city  of  Puebla, 
is  one  of  the  most  interesting  mountains  of  North  America  : 
a  volcano,  reaching  an  elevation  of  17,800  feet  above  sea 
level.  The  crater  has  experienced  no  violent  eruption  since 
1802,  although  sulphurous  smoke  is  emitted  at  times — ■ 
hence  its  name  of  "  smoking  mountain  "  in  the  Aztec  tongue. 
Popocatepetl  and  its  sister  mountain  Ixtacihuatl  form  the 
most  prominent  landmarks  in  Central  Mexico,  and  were 
objects  of  veneration  by  the  early  Mexicans,  the  Aztecs, 
and  others.  Cortes  and  his  Spaniards,  on  their  passage 
upwards  from  the  coast,  at  the  time  of  the  Conquest,  first 
beheld  the  great  city  of  Tenochtitlan,  as  the  city  of  Mexico 
was  termed  by  the  Aztecs,  from  the  high  ridge  between 
these  two  snowy  mountains.  Below  them  the  Aztec 
capital  lay,  its  walls  gleaming  on  the  margin  of  lake 
Texcoco.  Some  of  the  Spaniards  reached  the  rim  of  the 
crater  on  that  occasion,  and  afterwards  obtained  sulphur 
therefrom.  Recently  a  project  has  been  brought  forward 
by  a  British  syndicate  to  build  a  railway  to  the  summit, 


THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  MEXICO         403 

to  establish  a  sanatorium  for  tuberculosis  thereon,  and  to 
exploit  the  crater  as  a  sulphur  mine.  Over  such  a  line  in 
a  ride  of  two  hours  from  the  city  of  Mexico  the  passenger 
would  experience  a  very  marked  change  in  temperature  : 
from  temperate  conditions  to  that  considerably  below 
freezing-point.  The  mountain  of  Popocatepetl  is  private 
property,  not  a  state  possession,  and  its  original  owner 
obtained  large  quantities  of  sulphur  from  the  crater  by 
laborious  methods.  In  a  report  made  by  engineers  of  the 
government  it  was  calculated  that  150,000,000  tons  of 
sulphur  existed  in  the  crater,  the  main  deposit  being  about 
500  feet  below  the  rim  ;  and  that  as  the  sulphur  was  con- 
stantly being  re-deposited  from  the  sulphurous  smoke,  the 
mountains  formed  a  species  of  natural  sulphur  manu- 
facturing plant  on  a  vast  scale.  Motive  power  for  such  an 
undertaking,  it  is  affirmed,  could  be  obtained  by  means  of 
a  hydro-electric  installation  actuated  by  the  cataracts 
which  descend  the  slope  of  the  mountain,  from  the  thawing 
of  the  snows. 

The  name  of  the  other  snowy  mountain,  Ixtacihuatl, 
means,  in  the  native  tongue,  the  "  Sleeping  Woman,"  so 
called  from  the  fanciful  resemblance  of  its  serrated  outline 
to  the  form  of  a  recumbent  woman.  The  highest  summit 
is  16,960  feet  above  sea  level,  and  the  appearance  of  the 
mountain  is  singularly  beautiful.  The  two  mountains, 
Popocatepetl  and  its  companion,  form  part  of  the  Cor- 
dillera de  Anahuac,  in  company  with  MaHnche,  another 
peak,  of  14,630  feet  elevation  ;  a  cross  ridge  of  volcanic 
formation,  and  of  more  recent  origin  than  the  Sierra 
Madres,  which  it  unites.  A  further  Mexican  peak,  at 
times  snow-covered,  is  the  Nevado  de  Toluca,  14,950  feet 
high,  and  on  the  west  coast  is  the  principal  or  only  active 
volcano  in  Mexico,  that  of  Colima,  whose  crater  is  13,000 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  Pacific  ocean. 

The  mountains  of  Mexico  do  not  nearly  approach  the 
elevation  of  the  Andes,  and  only  three  peaks  throughout 
the  country — two  of  Mhicli  have  been  described — rise  above 
the  perpetual  snow-line.  The  third  and  highest  is  Orizaba, 
a  symmetrical  cone  which  rises  from  the  eastern  Sierra  Madre 


404  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 

to  an  elevation  of  18,250  feet  above  sea  level,  and  is  visible 
from  far  out  in  the  gulf  of  Mexico,  on  approaching  the 
shores  of  Vera  Cruz.  The  native  Indian  name  of  the  peak 
was  Citlalteptl,  or  the  "  mountain  of  the  star,"  and  the 
snowy  peak,  its  base  often  surrounded  by  clouds,  appears 
at  times  as  if  hanging  in  the  blue  firmament. 

Vera  Cruz,  the  historic  seaport  of  the  gulf  of  Mexico,  is 
the  most  important  gateway  of  the  country  by  sea.  Upon 
the  flat,  sandy  shore  Cortes  and  his  Spaniards  first  landed 
on  Easter  day  in  1520,  and  having  burnt  his  caravels  to 
avoid  mutiny  the  Conquistador  established  a  colony  and  set 
forth  for  the  Aztec  capital,  which  lay  behind  the  great 
mountains  looming  upwards  to  the  west.  The  ascent  of 
Cortes  and  his  band  to  the  valley  of  Anahuac  is  one  of 
the  epics  of  history.  To-day  two  lines  of  railway  connect 
Vera  Cruz  with  the  city  of  Mexico,  and  of  recent  years  the 
port,  formerly  a  plague-spot  of  yellow  fever,  with  its  shipping 
subject  to  the  devastating  gales,  or  "  nortes,"  from  the  gulf, 
has  been  greatly  improved  by  new  breakwaters  and  port 
works,  and  by  sanitary  methods.  On  a  reef  stretching  out 
into  the  bay  is  the  old  fort  of  San  Juan  de  Ulloa,  which  was 
built  to  protect  the  town,  long  pillaged  by  privateers.  Vera 
Cruz  has  been  captured  both  by  the  French  and  by  the 
Americans,  and  has  an  interesting  history.  The  climate  is 
hot  and  humid,  and  the  foreigner  generally  loses  little  time  in 
taking  the  train  for  Mexico,  263  miles  distant.  The  Mexican 
Vera  Cruz  railway  is  one  of  the  most  famous  scenic  lines 
in  the  world.  It  was  begun  under  the  rule  of  the  emperor 
Maximilian,  and  completed  in  1873  by  a  British  company ; 
and  the  great  engineering  difficulties  overcome  entitle  the 
line  to  a  foremost  rank  in  railway-building  enterprises. 
Crossing  the  coastal  plains  the  track  winds  among  the  pro- 
found "  barrancas  "  or  ravines  of  the  Sierra  Madre,  passing 
from  the  tropics  through  a  rich,  tangled  forest  belt,  over 
roaring  torrents  by  high  steel  viaducts  to  the  temperate 
zones  ;  and  thence  over  the  mountain  fastnesses,  to  gain  the 
elevation  of  the  valley  of  Mexico,  The  view  from  the 
Maltrata  summit  which  is  reached  on  the  route  is  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  that  the  traveller  can  encounter  :  the 
town  and  country  lying  spread  out  far  below. 


THE  UNITED  STATES   OF  MEXICO         405 

One  of  the  principal  and  most  attractive  cities  in  Mexico 
is  Guadalajara,  the  capital  of  the  state  of  Jalisco  and  the 
second  or  third  in  the  republic  in  point  of  size.  It  stands 
upon  the  western  side  of  the  plateau,  surrounded  by  great 
plains  of  wheat-growing  capacity,  at  an  elevation  of 
slightly  over  5,000  feet  above  sea  level,  and  enjoying  an 
exceptionally  favourable  climate.  Guadalajara  is  a  city 
of  some  note  as  regards  its  pubhc  buildings  and  institutions, 
rehgious  and  secular,  with  a  handsome  cathedral,  and  a 
population  of  more  than  150,000  inhabitants.  To  the 
south-east,  near  at  hand,  lies  the  fine  lake  of  Chapala, 
eighty  miles  long,  and  of  much  scenic  beauty,  forming  the 
source  of  the  Santiago  river,  which  flows  for  200  miles  to 
the  Pacific  coast.  Upon  the  upper  course  of  this  river  are 
the  great  falls  of  Juanacatlan,  worthily  called  the  Niagara 
of  Mexico. 

The  great  mining  towns  of  Mexico  are  full  of  interest 
and  romance,  and  are  still  centres  of  considerable  mineral 
production,  as  elsewhere  described.  The  principal  seaports 
on  the  Pacific  coast  are  Mazatlan,  San  Bias,  Guaymas, 
Salina  Cruz,  and  Acapulco,  and  some  of  them  have  been 
improved  by  new  harbour  works  of  recent  years.  The 
harbour  of  Acapulco  possesses  an  anchorage  which  has 
been  favourably  compared  with  that  of  Rio  de  Janiero 
and  Sydney,  as  one  of  the  finest  in  the  world  :  and  when 
the  projected  harbour  works  are  completed  it  will  be  one 
of  the  best  havens  on  the  Pacific  coast  of  the  Americas. 
Acapulco  has  an  interesting  history,  dating  from  the  time 
of  Cortes  and  the  Spanish  galleons. 

The  most  progressive  city  in  the  north  of  Mexico  is  Mon- 
terey, formerly  connected  with  the  capital,  606  miles 
distant,  by  a  waggon  road,  and  now  the  centre  of  a  railway 
system.  The  population  numbers  more  than  80,000,  and 
there  are  important  industries  of  woollen  mills,  smelting 
works,  brass  and  iron  foundries,  a  steel-producing  plant, 
flour-mills  and  breweries,  and  others,  generally  controlled 
by  foreign  capital,  and  actuated  by  water  power.  The 
surrounding  district  is  fertile,  with  a  rainfall  of  about  twenty- 
two   inches  ;  the  climate  is  dry  and  mild,    and  the  city 


4o6  CENTRAL  AND  SOU'BH  AMERICA 

- '» 

furnishes  a  health  resort  for  people  from  the  United  States. 
Monterey  was  founded  in  1560,  and  is  laid  out  with  broad 
streets,  and  covers  a  considerable  area,  with  a  cathedral 
and  bishop's  palace.  The  city  suffered  severely  from  a 
flood  in  1909,  due  to  the  overflow  of  the  Catarma  river, 
on  whose  banks  it  is  situated.  Historically  it  retains 
many  memories  of  the  American  war  in  1849,  when  it  was 
the  scene  of  a  severe  struggle  between  the  Mexicans  and  the 
Americans. 

Conditions  of  life  and  travel,  away  from  the  railways 
in  the  more  remote  parts  of  Mexico,  have  altered  but  little 
in  the  past  years.  The  roads  are  dusty  or  rocky  mule-trails, 
with  a  few  highways  in  the  plateau  region  over  which  an 
occasional  "  diligencia  "  runs,  drawn  by  mules  driven  four- 
in-hand.  In  many  of  the  smaller  towns  there  are  small 
primitive  fondas  or  hotels,  but  in  remote  hamlets  private 
hospitality  must  be  sought,  and  this  is  often  forthcoming, 
for,  by  nature,  the  Mexicans  are  a  hospitable  people — a 
primitive  virtue  born  both  of  character  and  the  semi- 
mediaeval  conditions  under  which  they  dwell.  There  is 
the  same  desire  among  the  "  gente  racional,"  or  progressive- 
minded  mestizo  element,  to  appear  abreast  of  the  times,  as 
is  encountered  in  South  America :  a  useful  pretension, 
indicative  of  the  spirit  of  progress  which  awaits  the  looked- 
for  regeneration  and  development  of  their  backward  regions. 
Among  the  peons,  the  faithfulness  and  assiduity  to  serve 
which  they  display,  and  their  care  in  details,  is  in  contrast 
with  their  habits  of  makeshift  and  procrastination.  With 
both  classes,  to-morrow  will  serve  equally  as  well  as  to-day, 
and  "  maiiana  "  is  a  peaceful  and  convenient  refuge.  The 
Mexicans,  like  all  their  Latin  American  kindred,  are  not  a 
road-building  people.  The  mule-trail  suffices  them.  The 
cahallero  goes  mounted,the  horse  is  an  adjunct  of  his  gentihty, 
and  he  would  not  walk,  unless  upon  a  city  pavement, 
and  the  peon  and  his  woman  tramp  in  the  dust  which  has 
served  their  forefathers  and  will  serve  them.  Nor  are 
Mexicans  by  nature  careful  of  sanitary  conditions  ;  and  the 
traveller's  sense  of  smell  quickly  warns  him  when  a  hamlet 
is  near.     The  small  patches  of  maize,  and  the  groves  of 


THE  UNITED  STATES   OF  MEXICO         407 

prickly  pear,  contending  with  the  aridity  of  the  desert, 
shew  how  a  primitive  people  can  wrest  a  living  from  rocks 
and  thorns  ;  and  some  diminutive  irrigation  channel,  scooped 
around  the  base  of  the  hill  from  a  trickle  in  a  neighbouring 
rocky  gulch,  indicates  that  art  has  been  added  to  ungrateful 
nature.  Perchance  some  native  maiden,  standing  poised 
by  a  spring — which  seems  as  if  it  issued  from  some  rock — 
with  a  great  "  olla  "  upon  her  head  or  shoulder,  indicates 
where  lies  the  water  supply  of  the  community.  The  crosses 
which  from  time  to  time  the  horseman  passes,  planted  by  the 
wayside  or  on  the  summit  of  some  rocky  knoll,  are  in  memory 
of  wayside  tragedies,  or  are  silent  exhortations  regarding 
things  eternal,  for  the  Indian  character  is  devout. 

The  strong  contrasts  of  social  life  in  Mexico  have  their 
counterpart  in  the  physical  realm,  and  no  country  offers 
greater  comparisons  between  the  arid  and  the  fruitful  in 
nature.  The  scorching  or  dusty  wildernesses  of  the  great 
plateau  are  subject  at  night  to  the  bitter  cold  of  the  rare- 
fied atmosphere,  induced  by  the  great  diurnal  change  of 
temperature.  The  bare,  rocky  mountain  ranges  which 
traverse  or  bound  the  plateau  are  rich  in  minerals,  but,  except 
in  certain  regions,  are  sterile  and  unclothed  by  timber. 
Apart  from  this  natural  bareness  the  face  of  the  country  in 
the  path  of  the  locomotive  has  been  much  denuded  of 
timber  in  certain  districts,  as  well  as  by  wasteful  clearings  : 
a  condition  which  may  react  unfavourably  upon  the  land- 
scape and  rainfall  in  the  future.  There  are,  however,  in 
other  districts,  forests  of  common  oak,  spruce,  fir,  and  pine, 
and  among  the  most  striking  features  of  the  uplands,  from 
9,000  to  15,000  feet  elevation,  are  the  great  coniferous  forests. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  valleys  of  the  lowlands  run  riot 
in  tropical  growth.  They  are  often  of  the  most  picturesque 
and  alluring  aspect  imaginable,  and  trees,  flowers,  insects, 
birds  and  reptiles  vie  with  each  other  in  prolific  life  and 
colour.  Profound  canyons,  threaded  by  limpid  streams, 
in  the  midst  of  the  deepest  solitude,  display  a  wealth  of 
form  and  colour  in  arboreal  and  floral  vegetation  such  as  is 
scarcely  encountered  elsewhere  except  on  the  Amazon. 
In   the   neighbourhood   of    the   towns   and   haciendas   the 


408  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 

clearings  exhibit  luxuriant  coffee  and  banana  plantations, 
and  the  half-wild  gardens  and  the  anoyos  or  ravines  are 
overhung  with  the  most  luscious  and  succulent  fruits  that 
can  be  conceived.  Hanging  from  the  feathery  palm-trees 
are  clusters  of  cocoanuts,  rising  above  the  orange  and  lemon 
groves  ;  and  among  the  rocks,  or  upon  the  old  stone  walls  of 
the  enclosures,  the  iguana,  a  great  tropical  lizard,  disports 
itself,  and  tropic  butterflies  of  great  size  and  gorgeous  colour 
flutter  among  the  flowers.  Great  areas  of  succulent  sugar- 
cane, tilled  by  white-clad  peons,  irrigated  from  canals 
conducted  from  sparkling  torrents,  cover  the  more  fertile 
slopes  and  valleys  ;  and,  as  far  as  nature  is  concerned, 
peace  and  plenty  might  seems  to  reign  paramount. 

Mexico  is  not  a  land  for  the  sportsman,  as  there  is  little 
beyond  a  few  deer  or  peccaries  or  coyotes  upon  the  uplands, 
and  no  great  fauna  in  the  tropic  lowlands,  such  as  in  Africa 
attracts  the  big  game-hunter.  But  the  types  of  both  animal 
and  vegetable  life  belong  to  those  of  the  northern  temperate 
region  and  to  those  of  the  southern  tropical  region,  Mexico 
forming  a  transition  ground  between  the  two.  The  jaguar 
and  the  puma  are  scarce,  and  the  buffalo  has  practically 
gone.  The  monkey,  alligator,  and  crocodile  abound,  the 
one  in  the  tangled  woods  and  the  other  in  the  rivers  and 
lagoons  of  the  tropic  lowlands  ;  and  the  rattlesnake  and  the 
boa-constrictor,  the  turtle  and  the  vampire,  are  other 
occupants  of  that  zone.  The  wild  turkey  was  the  progenitor 
of  the  domestic  bird  which  Mexico  gave  to  Europe  ;  the  "  zen- 
zontl,"  or  mocking-bird,  the  humming-bird,  the  zopiloteor 
buzzard,  known  as  the  scavenger  of  the  plains  and  the  cities, 
is  preserved  by  law  in  Vera  Cruz :  and  the  mournful  "tecolote" 
or  night-owl  and  the  "  quetzal,"  whose  wonderful  plumage 
was  reserved  by  the  Aztec  rulers  for  themselves,  are  among 
the  best-known  birds  of  Mexico.  Among  the  insects  are  the 
destructive  termites,  or  white  ants  ;  and  the  venomous 
tarantula  and  the  scorpion,  or  "  alacran,"  are  found  in 
proximity  to  the  dwellings  of  man. 

Due  to  its  geographical  position  and  the  varied  vertical 
climatic  zones,  with  an  extensive  barren  tableland  between 
two  tropic  and  forestal  coastal  regions,  Mexico  presents 


410  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 

a  diversity  of  plant  life  so  great  as  is  scarcely  encountered  in 
any  other  country  ;  including  species  from  the  tropical  to  the 
temperate.  Rare  cabinet  and  dye  woods,  palms  and  lianas, 
mangroves  and  orchids  are,  on  the  one  hand,  the  result  of 
these  conditions,  and  fine  forests  and  pasture-lands  on  the 
other.  The  most  characteristic  plant  in  Mexico  is  the 
cactus,  of  which  there  are  about  i,ooo  species.  Among  these 
the  enormous  "  organo  "  arrests  the  view,  with  its  astonish- 
ing formation  and  appearance ;  and  the  nopal  and  the  various 
kinds  of  maguey  furnish  invaluable  sources  of  food  and 
industry  to  the  human  inhabitants.  Mexico  is  a  paradise 
for  the  botanist  at  least,  and  very  large  regions  remain  to 
be  examined.  No  idea  could  be  given  in  a  brief  descrip- 
tion of  the  marvellous  variety  and  splendour  of  the  flora 
of  the  Tierra  Caliente.  The  forests  of  the  hot  lands,  like 
those  of  the  Amazon,  are  not  composed  of  a  few  dominating 
species,  as  in  the  colder  countries,  but  of  countless  kinds, 
woven  together,  struggling  upwards  from  the  mass  out  of 
the  gloom  they  themselves  have  cast,  to  reach  the  sunlight. 
Of  the  delicious  fruits  of  Mexico  the  many  varieties  are  a 
revelation  to  the  traveller,  in  the  powers  of  nature  in  new 
form  and  flavour. 

The  river  systems  of  Mexico  are  those  of  the  east  and 
west,  slopes  of  the  great  plateau,  and  the  few  streams  which 
lose  themselves  in  the  inland  basins,  such  as  the  Nazas,  and 
those  of  the  Bolson  of  Mapimi.  The  Santiago,  flowing  into 
the  Pacific,  is  the  largest,  540  miles  long,  noted  for  its  deep 
canyons  and  cascades  ;  and  the  Yaqui,  390  miles  long,  the 
Balsas,  426  miles  long,  are  other  rivers  of  the  Pacific  water- 
shed, but  none  is  navigable  for  any  practical  purposes. 
On  the  Gulf  coast,  however,  there  are  several  navigable 
rivers,  notably  the  Grijalva  and  the  Usumacinta,  navigable 
respectively  for  93  and  270  miles,  and  there  are  various 
other  fluvial  ways  along  the  east  coast,  of  service  for  small 
craft.  The  regions  of  Tabasco  and  Chiapas,  served  by  the 
above-mentioned  rivers,  are  of  great  value  as  centres  of 
tropical  production.  The  great  Colorado  river,  falling  into 
the  head  of  the  gulf  of  California,  the  "  Euphrates  "  of 
America,  runs  but  a  short  distance  through  INIexican  territory. 


THE  UNITED   STATES  OF  MEXICO         411 

and  the  Rio  Grande  del  Norte,  the  Conchos,  and  others,  are 
valuable  chiefly  as  sources  of  irrigation. 

Agriculture  is  the  principal  source  of  Mexican  industry 
and  prosperity,  notwithstanding  the  importance  of  mining 
and  the  almost  fabulous  wealth  of  gold  and  silver  pro- 
duced in  the  past.  The  wide  range  and  great  variety  of 
the  agricultural  products  of  the  country  are  due  to  the 
topography  and  latitude,  and  comprise  cereals  and  other 
food  products  of  the  temperate  zone,  as  well  as  nearly  all 
those  due  to  tropical  regions.  The  principal  agricultural  pro- 
ducts are  determined  by  the  matter  of  rainfall.  Upon  the 
plateau,  portions  of  which  form  the  most  populated  regions 
of  the  country,  artificial  irrigation  is  necessary  for  all 
crops,  whether  of  cotton,  maize,  or  other.  The  rivers  and 
streams  which  traverse  the  region  are  torrential  and  inter- 
mittent in  character,  and  only  suffice  to  irrigate  certain 
belts  of  territory,  which  represent  only  a  small  part  of  the 
available  area.  The  irrigated  districts  are  of  great  value, 
due  to  the  fertility  of  the  soil  under  the  action  of  water  ; 
and  the  regimen  of  the  rivers  and  appropriation  of  water 
for  the  canal  systems  have  in  some  instances  been  made  the 
subject  of  scientific  study  and  careful  legislation,  although 
much  more  remains  to  be  done  in  this  field.  Upon  the 
plateau  region,  and  the  higher  slopes  of  the  littoral  on  both 
sides  of  the  country,  water  is  of  the  utmost  value,  and  the 
future  of  Mexican  agriculture  will  depend  largely  upon  the 
methods  taken  to  conserve  the  water-supply  and  to  store 
it  in  reservoirs  against  the  dry  seasons,  when  many  of  the 
rivers  become  absolutely  dry  and  parched.  Important 
irrigation  works  have  been  carried  out  in  various  parts  of 
the  republic,  including  the  international  works  upon  the 
Rio  Grande,  forming  the  boundary  with  the  United  States. 
Large  masonry  dams  and  intakes  have  been  constructed, 
and  a  canal  S3^stem  covering  the  zones  of  territory  available 
for  the  use  of  the  water  supply.  Works  of  this  character  have 
been  made  on  other  important  streams.  In  the  moister  regions 
of  the  coasts  the  rainfall  is  much  heavier,  and  especially  south 
of  Tehuantepec  is  excessive  and  tropical  in  character,  and 
the  slopes  of  the  plateau  are  covered  with  dense  vegetation. 


412  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 

The  most  valuable  lands  in  Mexico,  and  the  agricultural 
industries  which  flourish  thereon,  are  in  the  hands  of  a 
comparatively  few  holders,  the  rich  "  hacendados,"  or 
estate  owners,  many  of  whom  are  millionaires.  The  wealth 
of  this  class  contrasts  strongly  with  the  poverty  of  the  people 
who  produce  it — the  cotton-clad  and  sandalled  peons, 
whose  conditions  of  life  are  often  a  reproach  to  the  Mexican 
social  system.  The  timber-bearing  regions  are  to  a  large 
extent  in  the  hands  of  foreign  syndicates. 

Among  the  principal  products  of  the  country  is  cotton. 
The  cotton  lands  lie  mainly  in  north  Central  Mexico,  and  a 
typical  district  is  that  of  the  Laguna,  in  the  states  of  Coahuila 
and  Durango,  upon  the  Nazas  river,  whose  waters  irrigate 
the  plantations  from  a  system  of  canals  in  the  rainy  season, 
after  the  manner  of  the  lands  of  the  Nile.  A  large  number 
of  cotton-growing  haciendas  or  estates  exists  in  this  important 
region,  where  the  deep  alluvial  soil  is  extremely  fertile  under 
the  action  of  water.  The  plantations  of  the  Nazas  have 
created  considerable  wealth  for  their  owners,  and  have 
produced  as  much  as  145,000  tons  of  cotton  in  a  year.  The 
region  forms  part  of  the  Bolson  of  Mapimi,  a  great  area  of 
land  which  in  earlier  geologic  times  formed  a  vast  lake, 
and  which  has  no  hydrographic  outlet,  after  the  manner  of 
other  Mexican  lake  districts.  The  Nazas  river  terminates 
in  a  lagoon,  whose  only  source  of  exhaustion  is  by  evapora- 
tion and  seepage.  The  drying-up  process  going  on  in 
Western  America  is  further  exemplified  here,  as  in  Peru  and 
Chile,  districts  somewhat  similar  to  the  Nazas.  British 
capital  is  represented  in  the  cotton-growing  industry  of 
the  Nazas  ;  in  the  large  estates  of  Tlahualilo.  The 
centre  of  the  region  socially,  is  the  pretty  town  of  Lerdo. 
Somewhat  similar  districts  exist  in  the  vicinity  of  the  other 
rivers  of  the  plateau,  whose  entire  flow  of  water  at  times  is 
utilised  in  the  canal  systems.  Fifteen  others  of  the  Mexican 
states  of  the  republic  produce  cotton,  but  in  much  smaller 
amounts. 

Following  on  the  production  of  raw  cotton  an  important 
textile  industry  has  been  established,  with  upwards  of  150 
factories   distributed   over   a   large   part    of   the   country, 


THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  MEXICO         413 

forming  the  most  successful  and  remunerative  feature  of 
Mexican  industrial  life.  The  factories  are  in  most  cases 
large,  well-built  establishments,  with  the  machinery  often 
actuated  hydro-electrically,  and  employ  more  than  30,000 
operatives  in  the  aggregate.  The  production  of  raw  cotton 
does  not  cope  with  the  home  demands,  and  large  quantities 
are  imported  from  Texas. 

Sugar  cultivation  and  manufacture  is  another  important 
industry  ;  confined  to  the  regions  of  the  Tierra  caliente,  or 
tropical  lands,  and  part  of  the  Tierra  templada,  or  more 
temperate  zone.  Parts  of  the  states  of  Morelos,  Vera  Cruz, 
Puebla,  Oaxaca,  and  Sinaloa  are  entirely  covered  by  sugar- 
cane plantations  ;  and  the  whole  of  the  domestic  consump- 
tion, which  is  very  considerable,  is  supphed  by  their  pro- 
duce, and  at  some  periods  a  considerable  export  is  made. 
Sugar  production  has  been  one  of  the  most  prosperous  of 
Mexican  industries,  and  the  large  estate  owners  have  acquired 
considerable  wealth  therefrom.  In  the  best  districts  the 
cane  is  grown  under  irrigation,  and  the  soil  is  extremely 
fertile.  More  than  2,000  sugar  mills  exist,  and  of  these  300  or 
more  are  equipped  with  modern  machinery,  the  remainder 
being  of  primitive  appliances  and  methods.  The  output  for 
sugar  production  has  reached  a  total  of  more  than  250,000 
tons  of  sugar  and  molasses,  the  greater  part  of  the  sugar 
being  the  brown  cakes  which  are  consumed  locally  by  the 
poorer  population,  among  whom  it  forms  an  important 
article  of  food. 

The  well-known  maguey,  the  Agave  Americana,  known  in 
Britain  as  the  Century  Plant,  furnishes  material  for  one  of 
the  most  important  agricultural  industries  of  Mexico. 
From  the  fermented  juice  of  this  plant  the  national  drink 
of  pulque  is  produced,  a  beverage  which  has  never  been 
supplanted  since  the  time  of  the  Aztecs,  notwithstanding 
that  sugar-cane  rum  has  a  considerable  consumption.  The 
maguey  is  cultivated  in  large  plantations,  principally  in  the 
southern  states  of  the  plateau  ;  the  plains  of  Apam  in 
Hidalgo  yielding  the  choicest  product.  The  value  of  the 
total  production  of  pulque  has  reached  as  much  as 
£1,000,000  sterling  in  a  year,  and  trainloads  of  wine-skins, 


414  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 

in  which  the  Hquid  is  carried,  are  dispatched  daily  from  the 
estates  to  the  city  of  Mexico  and  other  points,  where  the 
consumption  of  the  drink  is  very  great.  Pulque  is  not  an 
ardent  form  of  alcohol,  but  it  is  an  intoxicant,  and  its  abuse 
is  responsible  for  much  of  the  criminality  of  the  lower  classes. 
Its  production  is  in  the  hands  of  a  powerful  class  of  land- 
holders and  legislators,  who  reap  fortunes  therefrom,  as 
in  the  case  of  the  rum  production  in  the  republics  of  South 
America  ;  and  under  present  conditions  legislation  unfavour- 
able to  the  distribution  and  consumption  of  the  drink  is 
not  likely  to  be  inaugurated.  The  ixtle  fibre  produced 
from  the  maguey  is  a  valuable  article  of  export. 

The  cultivation  of  maize  has,  in  some  years,  reached  the 
greatest  importance  among  Mexican  products.  It  is  the 
staple  food  of  the  bulk  of  the  people,  and  the  soil  and  climate 
are  favourable  to  its  production,  except  that  irrigation  is 
necessary.  Long  droughts  reduce  the  yield  at  times  heavily, 
and  importation  becomes  necessary.  Better  conditions  of 
agriculture  and  scientific  water-storage  for  irrigation  would 
tend  to  make  the  country  self-supporting  in  the  growing 
of  this  cereal,  but  whilst  more  rapid  profits  from  other  pro- 
ducts are  obtainable  by  the  large  landowners,  it  is  not  to  be 
expected  that  maize  will  be  produced  in  such  quantities 
as  to  render  the  country  independent  from  the  necessities 
of  import,  or  immune  from  the  dangers  of  famine.  The 
grain  is  cultivated  in  all  the  states  of  the  republic,  both  on 
the  plateau  and  the  coast  lowlands.  For  some  years  the 
value  of  the  maize  produced  in  Mexico  has  reached  the 
equivalent  of  more  than  £9,000,000  sterling. 

Wheat  grows  less  favourably  than  maize,  but  it  is  never- 
theless a  staple  crop,  grown  in  nearly  all  the  states.  On  the 
plateau  cultivation  often  suffers  severely  from  the  uncer- 
tainty of  the  rainfall  and  lack  of  irrigation.  The  value  of 
wheat  production  has  reached  as  much  as  £2,250,000  per 
annum. 

The  henequen,  or  sisal  hemp,  is  cultivated  almost  exclu- 
sively in  Yucatan,  and  is  one  of  the  prominent  sources  of 
agricultural  wealth  of  the  republic,  its  value  in  a  year 
having  reached  more  than  £3,000,000.     The  fibre  is  exported 


THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  MEXICO         415 

to  the  United  States,  where  it  is  principally  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  binding  twine  for  harvesting  machines. 
The  light,  shallow  soils  overlying  the  calcareous  rock 
formation  of  the  peninsular  of  Yucatan  are  singularly 
favourable  to  the  growth  of  this  plant,  and  although  attempts 
have  been  made  to  cultivate  it  elsewhere,  such  marked 
success  has  not  been  attained.  The  henequen  plantations 
yield  great  wealth  to  their  owners,  who  are  regarded  as  the 
richest  class  in  the  republic.  The  contrast  between  this 
wealth,  concentrated  in  a  few  hands,  wrung  from  the  soil 
by  the  labour  of  the  peons,  and  the  poverty  of  these,  is 
one  of  the  most  striking  examples  of  agricultural  oppression 
in  the  world.  In  some  cases  the  conditions  of  life  of  the 
labouring  class  and  the  Indians  in  that  part  of  Mexico  are 
little  short  of  slavery,  and  are  at  times  accompanied  by 
gross  abuses  and  cruelties  of  a  most  serious  character,  which, 
to  the  credit  of  the  republic,  should  be  remedied.  The 
Valle  Nacional  and  the  Yaqui  Indians  also  embody  a  history 
of  a  cruel  and  ruthless  nature  :  a  serious  instance  of  the 
abuse  of  the  native. 

Another  important  product  of  Mexican  soil  is  coffee,  which 
has  become  an  article  of  export.  This  is  grown  only  in  the 
lower  lands  of  the  tropical  belt,  and  would  not  flourish 
on  the  plateau.  The  quality  produced  in  certain  districts, 
both  upon  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  slopes,  has  acquired  some 
reputation  for  excellence.  The  bean  crop  is  an  important 
one ;  beans  form  one  of  the  principal  articles  of  diet 
of  the  labouring  classes,  and  even  appear  on  the  tables  of 
the  upper  classes.  They  are  best  known  as  frijoles  ;  and 
that  a  hard-working  population  can  carry  on  its  labours 
with  a  vegetarian  diet  of  beans,  maize,  and  aji,  or  chillies, 
is  one  of  the  remarkable  features  of  Latin  American  hfe. 
The  aji  is  the  red  pepper-pod  or  capsicum,  and  is  largely 
cultivated  for  food,  as  in  Peru  and  elsewhere. 

A  further  profitable  industry,  maintaining  more  than  500 
tobacco  factories,  is  that  of  tobacco  growing  and  the  manu- 
facture of  cigarettes  and  cigars.  Among  the  Mexican 
establishments  is  one  of  the  largest  cigarette  factories  in  the 
world,  established  in  the  capital. 


4i6  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 

Potatoes,  cacao,  chewing-gum,  peanuts,  rubber  are  all 
important  products  of  Mexico,  and  serve  to  shew  the  wide 
variety  of  plant  life  in  the  country.  Rubber  is  produced 
in  plantations  to  some  extent,  but  the  "  guayle  "  is  a  prolific 
source  of  supply.  The  guayule  is  a  low  shrub  which  grows 
profusely  on  the  northern  plains,  extending  into  Texas,  and 
is  of  much  interest  as  being  the  only  non-tropical  rubber- 
producing  plant.  The  assortment  of  strange  and  delicious 
fruits  produced  in  the  tropical  and  sub-tropical  regions 
indicates  the  power  of  food-production  of  the  republic  : 
almost  every  kind  of  fruit  known  to  horticulture  is  found 
cultivated  or  Mdld  within  the  country,  from  oranges  and 
apples  to  cocoanuts,  bananas,  figs,  and  pine-apples.  The 
succulent  fruit  of  the  nopal,  or  prickly  pear,  known  as  the 
tuna,  grows  wild,  or  with  a  minimum  of  attention,  and  is  an 
acceptable  and  useful  fruit  for  the  poorer  classes.  The 
characteristic  foliage  of  the  prickly  pear  is  encountered 
everywhere,  the  plant  sending  forth  its  sappy,  thorny  leaves 
even  in  the  most  sterile  spots,  wherever  a  little  under- 
ground moisture  may  be  found  ;  and  this  cactus-fig  is  a 
marked  feature  of  the  arid  lands  of  Mexico,  as  of  many 
other  lands.  The  production  of  cocoanuts  might  become 
a  far  more  profitable  and  extended  industry  in  Mexico,  in 
view  of  the  growing  use  of  the  nut  as  a  food  product,  in 
the  making  of  fats  and  oils  abroad.  The  humid  lands  of 
the  littoral  are  the  home  of  the  cocoa-palm,  as  are  the 
slopes  of  the  plateau  and  the  southern  part  of  Mexico, 
approaching  Central  America.  Especially  is  this  the  case 
on  the  coast  of  Tabasco  and  Campeche,  and  on  some  of  the 
islands,  and  small  plantations  have  long  existed  in  those 
districts,  the  soil  being  peculiarly  favourable  to  the  tree. 

The  value  of  Mexican  agriculture  has  reached  at  times  the 
equivalent  of  £30,000,000  sterling  per  annum. 

Stock-raising  in  Mexico  has  become  an  industry  of  con- 
siderable importance,  both  as  regards  home  demand  and 
for  export.  The  great  cattle  ranches  are  in  the  hands  of 
wealthy  owners,  and  are  situated  principally  in  the  northern 
states,  upon  the  plateau,  and  on  the  higher  lands  of  the 
Atlantic  and  Pacific  slopes.     The  main  drawback  to  the 


THE  UNITED   STATES   OF  MEXICO         417 

industry  is  the  serious  droughts  which  occur  from  time  to 
time,  when  the  great  semi-arid  prairies  become  strewn  with 
dead  and  dying  cattle.  The  absence  of  rivers  and  streams 
in  these  regions  forces  rehance  almost  entirely  upon  under- 
ground supplies  ;  and  "  norias  "  or  wells,  actuated  by  horse- 
whims  or  hand-power,  are  numerous.  In  times  of  the  most 
severe  and  prolonged  drought  almost  total  losses  of  the  herds 
are  experienced,  the  animals  dying  from  thirst  and  lack  of 
fodder.  In  these  districts  considerable  capital  is  necessary 
for  success,  but  profits  have  generally  been  so  large  that 
losses  have  been  regarded  by  the  stock-owners  with  equani- 
mity. The  spectacle  of  dead  and  dying  cattle  left  to  rot 
or  mummify  in  the  sun  and  wind  in  these  semi-deserts, 
because  the  soil  cannot  support  them  in  life,  and  because 
negligent  pastoralists  will  not  even  trouble  to  bury  them,  is  a 
reproduction  on  a  lesser  scale  of  what  is  observed  in  Argen- 
tina. The  solution  in  both  countries  will  he  in  a  more 
diffuse  o-wTiership  of  the  soil  and  more  intensive  agriculture, 
under  the  stimulus  of  science  and  civihsation,  and  possibly 
in  the  growth  of  co-operative  measures.  In  the  foothills 
of  the  coast  region  stock-breeding  is  possible  with  less 
capital  and  at  less  risk,  the  rainfall  and  pasturage  being 
more  plentiful. 

Since  their  first  introduction  from  Spain,  both  the  equine 
and  the  bovine  races  have  suffered  severely  at  the  hand  of 
man  in  Mexico,  as  in  Latin  America  generally,  for  in  addition 
to  the  hardships  inflicted  by  nature,  in  scanty  fodder  and 
drought  on  the  uplands,  the  Latin  American  cattle-man 
is  not  a  merciful  man  to  his  beasts.  The  vaquero  of  Mexico 
is  among  the  most  callous  of  a  generally  heartless  calling, 
and  understands  little  of  that  humanity  to  animals  which 
characterises  the  higher  civilisation  of  Europe.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  Mexicans  have  earned  a  reputation  for 
being,  in  their  own  peculiar  field,  the  most  expert  horsemen 
in  the  world  ;  and  in  all  that  pertains  to  the  profession  of 
the  vaquero  and  his  marvellous  management  of  the  "  reata  " 
or  lasso,  and  to  the  lore  of  cattle  management,  the  Mexican 
has  no  superior  in  Latin  America,  not  excepting  the  gaiicho 
of  Argentina   and  southern   Brazil.     The   Mexicans   train 

DD 


4i8  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

their  horses'  mouths  to  a  sensitiveness  unknown  to  European 
or  American  horsemanship.  They  ride  with  a  single  rein 
and  the  heavy  Mexican  bit,  which  gives  full  control  over 
the  horse.  This  bit  is  not  necessarily  cruel,  as  has  popularly 
been  supposed,  nor  are  the  enormous  spurs  worn  by  the 
Mexican  horseman  as  painful  to  the  animal  in  their  use  as 
the  small,  sharp  English  spur.  The  heavy  Mexican  saddle, 
cumbersome  in  appearance  and  often  profusely  ornamented 
with  filigree  silver  work  and  chiselled  leather  trappings,  is 
extremely  comfortable  for  the  horseman,  and,  if  heavier, 
is  less  irksome  to  the  horse  in  the  day's  work  than  the 
small  English  saddle.  The  horse  in  Mexico  is  trained  to  a 
swift  paso,  or  pacing  march,  from  which  he  breaks  into  an 
easy  lope  and  thence  into  a  gallop.  The  trot  is  never  used  : 
it  is  the  most  uncomfortable  mode  of  advance  known. 
Nothing  can  exceed  the  ease  and  comfort  for  the  horseman 
of  the  combination  of  governance,  seat,  and  pace  of  the 
Mexican  horse  ;  and  horsemanship  is  one  of  the  native  arts. 

The  Mexican  horses  are  small  but  wiry  and  active.  Excel- 
lent mules  are  bred  for  the  carrying  trade.  Both  horses  and 
cattle  are  of  a  somewhat  degenerate  type,  having  received 
little  improvement  since  colonial  times.  The  long  distances 
the  cattle  are  obliged  to  roam  on  the  uplands  for  their 
pastures  and  water,  have  tended  to  produce  a  small,  hardy, 
bony,  large-headed  bovine,  which  has  departed  greatly  from 
the  type  of  its  ancestor  introduced  by  the  Spaniards.  In 
the  south  and  in  the  more  fertile  regions  of  the  lowlands 
the  cattle  are,  however,  of  a  superior  type.  The  number  of 
cattle  in  the  republic  has  been  estimated  at  about  5,000,000 
and  the  capital  invested  in  stock-raising  at  the  equivalent 
of  ;^70,ooo,ooo  sterling. 

In  the  state  of  Chihuahua,  which  is  one  of  the  principal 
cattle-regions,  is  the  enormous  property  known  as  the 
Terrazas  Hacienda,  which  has  been  described  as  the  largest 
single  estate  in  the  world.  It  contains  8,000,000  acres  of 
land,  in  mountain,  plain,  and  valley,  being  200  miles  long 
and  150  miles  wide  ;  and  maintains  1,000,000  head  of 
cattle,  nearly  750,000  sheep,  and  100,000  horses,  requir- 
ing the   services   of  2,000  horsemen,  vaqueros,  and  other 


THE   UNITED   STATES   OF   MEXICO  419 

employes.  This  great  ranch  is  provided  with  a  slaughtering 
and  meat-packing  plant,  to  supply  which  250,000  head  of 
cattle  and  sheep  are  slaughtered  annually.  The  water-supply 
is  provided  by  300  wells  and  five  large  storage  reservoirs, 
which  were  made  at  a  cost  of  1,000,000  dollars,  and  the 
dwelling-house,  it  is  stated,  was  constructed  at  a  cost  of 
2,000,000  dollars  and  has  accommodation  for  500  guests, 
with  100  servants,  and  with  extensive  stables  and  gardens. 

The  mineral  resources  of  Mexico  have  always  been  famous. 
The  history  of  mining  has  been  marked  by  various  periods 
of  activity.  Before  the  Spanish  advent,  gold,  tin,  and  copper 
were  worked  by  the  Aztecs,  but  the  period  of  greatest  pro- 
duction was  that  of  the  viceroys,  when,  under  the  system 
of  forced  labour,  similar  to  that  which  obtained  in  the 
viceroyalty  of  Peru,  silver  was  extracted  in  great  quantities 
from  the  mines,  and  shipped  to  fill  the  needy  coffers  of  the 
kings  of  Spain.  The  natives  were  often  treated  with  great 
brutality  ;  the  poor  serfs  were  driven  into  the  mines  by 
armed  guards,  forced  to  work  under  the  lash,  and  even 
branded  on  the  face,  as  observed  elsewhere.  There  barbarities 
were  the  work  of  greedy  colonists,  and  were  not  the  result  of 
monarchical  rule  necessarily,  for  the  Spanish  monarch  con- 
stantly legislated  for  the  protection  of  the  Indian.  In  the 
middle  of  the  nineteenth  centurya  great  deal  of  British  capital 
was  invested  in  the  Mexican  mines,  and  much  of  it  lost  or 
wasted,  but  this  was  followed  by  a  more  successful  American 
financial  and  engineering  invasion  of  the  mines.  Of  late  years 
British  capital  has  sustained  various  important  dividend- 
earning  enterprises,  and  a  steady  stream  of  gold  flows  from 
Mexican  mines  to  London  at  the  present  time. 

The  ore-bearing  zone  of  Mexico  is  more  than  1,200  miles 
long,  traversing  the  country  upon  the  Sierra  Madres  from 
Sonora  to  Chiapas,  the  northernmost  and  southernmost 
states  ;  and  within  this  the  rich  mining  districts  are  situated. 
The  places  most  famous  historically  include  that  of  Guana- 
juato, where  the  cruelties  connected  with  forced  labour 
under  the  viceroys  reached  their  culminating  point.  One  of 
the  great  mines  here  was  the  Valenciana,  first  worked  in 
1760,  producing  in  fifty  years  more  than  300,000,000  dollars 


420  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 

in  silver,  until  the  serfs  rose  in  rebellion  and  massacred 
their  masters.  The  town  was  granted  a  royal  charter  at 
the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century  ;  and  at  the  present 
time  contains  a  population  of  more  than  50,000  inhabitants. 
The  Valenciana  mine  was  afterwards  successfully  worked 
by  an  English  company,  and  later  by  Americans.  Zacatecas, 
equally  famous,  disclosed  its  mineral  wealth  in  1546,  was 
given  a  royal  charter  later,  and  produced  between  1548 
and  1867  silver  to  the  value  of  800,000,000  dollars.  At  the 
present  time  it  is  a  handsome  and  thriving  city.  Pachuca, 
a  similar  mining  centre,  was  renowned  both  for  its  enormous 
output  of  silver  and  for  the  evolution  of  the  "  patio  " 
process,  for  the  recovery  of  silver  from  its  ores  by  amal- 
gamation with  quicksilver.  British  enterprise  was  also 
displayed  at  Pachuca  ;  and  in  the  cemetery  of  the  town 
lie  the  graves  of  many  Cornish  miners  who  were  imported 
for  the  more  scientific  working  of  the  mines  in  1824.  These 
hardy,  clever  sons  of  Britain  played  their  useful  part  in 
a  strange  land,  and  now  rest  there.  The  operations  of  the 
British  adventurers  at  the  great  mines  of  Real  del  Monte 
were  made  the  subject  of  foolish  speculation  and  lavish 
expenditure.  The  sum  of  20,000,000  dollars  was  spent  in 
work  upon  these  mines,  but  only  16,000,000  dollars'  worth 
of  silver  was  obtained.  In  Chihuahua,  Durango,  and 
Guerrero,  the  northern,  central  and  southern  states  of 
Mexico,  many  millions  of  dollars  in  silver  were  extracted 
from  famous  mines  in  the  eighteenth  century,  and  massive 
churches  were  built  with  part  of  the  proceeds.  Thus,  the 
history  of  mining  has  not  been  entirely  barbarous  or  sordid 
in  Mexico,  the  devout  character  of  the  Spaniards  having 
assigned  some  share  of  the  mineral  treasure  to  religious 
purposes,  in  elaborate,  holy  monuments  which  have 
remained  for  following  generations.  A  certain  tax  was 
regularly  set  aside  at  that  period  from  mining  operations 
to  build  churches,  and  the  story  of  these  ancient  places 
and  doings  is  one  of  the  most  romantic  in  the  history  of 
mining  throughout  the  world.* 

During   the   rule   of   Diaz,    Mexican   mining    progressed 
greatly,     In  1903  gold  to  the  value  of  £11,500,000  sterling 

•  See  the  Author's  "  Mexico," 


THE  UNITED  STATES   OF  MEXICO         421 

was  exported,  and  in  1907  the  republic  stood  second  only 
to  the  United  States  in  the  production  of  copper,  which 
amounted  to  56,600  tons.  Towards  the  close  of  the  presi- 
dency of  Diaz,  laws  were  foreshadowed  with  the  purpose 
of  securing  the  possession  of  the  mines  to  the  nation,  and 
of  prohibiting  their  ownership  by  foreigners.  It  cannot 
be  altogether  denied  that  there  is  some  justifiable  groimd 
for  some  such  procedure.  For  the  wealth  of  the  soil  to  be 
worked  for  the  enriching  of  foreign  shareholders,  with  a 
relatively  smaU  proportion  of  benefit  accruing  to  the  native 
workers  and  the  land  generally  therefrom,  is  an  unnatural 
condition,  which  growing  social  conditions  are  hkely 
to  modify.  The  very  considerable  wealth  produced  by 
mining  operations,  it  might  have  been  supposed,  would 
have  served  to  benefit  and  upraise  the  labour  which  pro- 
duces it.  But  this  is  not  generally  the  case  in  any  part  of 
the  world.  The  native  Mexican  miner  is  a  hard-working 
and  expert  operative,  as  far  as  his  own  particular  methods 
go,  but  his  labour  receives  a  very  low  wage,  as  does  that  of 
his  fellows  in  Peru  and  other  Latin  American  lands  where 
minerals  are  largely  produced.  Mining  settlements  and 
camps  consist  in  groups  of  miserable  abodes  of  mud  or 
wattle,  clustered  on  barren  hillsides,  without  pretension 
to  beauty,  sanitation,  or  comfort.  There  are  no  laws 
restricting  hours  of  labour  or  rates  of  pay,  or  requiring 
safety  appliances  or  hygienic  methods  in  the  mining 
districts  of  Mexico. 

A  large  number  of  mines  of  gold  and  copper  and  of  other 
metals  and  minerals  are  successfully  exploited  in  Mexico 
at  the  present  time,  mainly  by  foreign  companies,  and  are 
well  known  to  the  stock  markets  in  London,  New  York,  and 
Paris.  Among  the  gold  mines  may  be  cited  the  enterprise 
known  as  the  Mexican  mines  of  El  Oro,  a  British  concern, 
whose  product  for  the  year  1912  was  142,844  tons  of  ore, 
from  which  gold  and  silver  to  the  value  of  1,555,000  dollars 
was  extracted,  equal  to  an  average  value  of  10.89  dollars  per 
ton,  with  costs  of  4.37  dollars  per  ton,  including  development 
and  taxes.  The  realised  profit  was  £182,000,  and  dividends 
amounting  to  i6s.  per  share  were  paid.     Another  British 


422  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH   AMERICA 

enterprise  known  as  El  Oro  Mining  and  Railway  produced 
302,750  tons  of  ore,  of  an  average  value  of  about  7.46  dollars 
per  ton,  and  highest  value  18.27  dollars,  with  a  small  amount 
of  silver.  For  the  railway  and  timber  department  of  this 
enterprise  the  net  profit  was  given  as  120,200  dollars.  The 
export  duty  on  Mexican  gold  has  been  raised  to  10  per  cent, 
recently. 

The  total  value  of  the  gold  output  from  Mexican  mines 
in  1911  was  estimated  at  ^^5,000, 000  sterling,  and  for 
1912  £4,500,000  ;  and  of  silver  in  1911  £8,250,000,  and  in 
1912  nearly  £9,000,000.  Of  the  silver  £3,500,000  was 
in  bar,  the  remainder  in  lead  ore  and  in  copper.  The 
value  of  the  gold  and  silver  export  in  1911  was  equal  to 
nearly  half  the  total  exports  from  Mexico.  It  is  a  noteworthy 
condition  that,  notwithstanding  the  disturbed  political 
condition  of  the  country  and  the  constant  fighting  in  certain 
districts,  the  gold  output  for  1911-12  was  more  than  7 
per  cent,  and  the  silver  more  than  12  per  cent,  greater  than 
the  average  of  the  four  preceding  years.  So  long  as  the 
equipment  and  personnel  of  the  mines  were  not  com- 
mandeered, and  railways  were  kept  open,  guerilla  warfare 
did  not  greatly  injure  the  mining  industry,  but  later  the 
conditions  were  disastrous. 

The  enormous  silver-lead  mine  and  smelting  works  of 
Mapimi  are  in  the  hands  of  German  capitalists  ;  at  Boleo 
in  Lower  Cahfornia  a  French  company  works  an  important 
group  of  copper  mines  and  smelting  works  ;  at  Mazapil 
is  the  British  Mazapil  Copper  Company,  with  large  mines 
and  furnaces  ;  and  at  Canannea  an  American  company 
controls  and  works  extensive  copper  and  silver  mines. 
The  deposits  both  of  coal  and  iron  in  Mexico  are  of  import- 
ance, and  both  have  been  subject  to  some  commercial 
exploitation.  They  are  not,  however,  among  the  most 
plentiful  resources  of  the  country,  as  far  as  present  know- 
ledge can  indicate,  but  may  develop  in  the  future.  In 
the  state  of  Coahuila  at  Salinas,  the  coal  deposits  opened 
were  estimated,  in  1908,  to  contain  visible  suppilies 
amounting  to  300,000,000  tons,  and  although  of  a  low  grade 
are  valuable  sources  of  fuel.     The  great  Cerro  de  Mercado, 


THE  UNITED   STATES  OF  MEXICO  423 

a  "  hill  of  iron  "  600  feet  high  and  4,800  feet  long,  in  Durango, 
is  the  most  famous  deposit  of  that  metal. 

The  activity  in  all  classes  of  mining  in  Mexico  has  been 
very  marked,  and  possesses  an  entire  literature  to  itself. 
The  subject  is  an  almost  unexhaustible  one.  There  are  lodes 
on  every  hill,  in  certain  regions  both  explored  and  unex- 
plored, and  no  land  offered  a  more  alluring  field  for  the 
prospector  before  the  recent  disturbances. 

Mining  law  in  Mexico,  as  in  most  of  the  Latin  American 
republics,  is  relatively  simple,  and  imposes  a  minimum 
burden  upon  the  prospector  and  miner.  The  unit  of  claim 
is  the  pertenencia,  of  100  metres  square,  or  one  hectare,  equal 
to  2.471  acres.  There  is  no  hmit  to  the  number  of  claims 
that  may  be  made.  The  first  act  on  taking  up  the  claim 
is  known  as  the  denouncement ;  or  a  prospector  may  first 
take  an  exploration  permit,  which  gives  him  two  months' 
right  for  prospecting  an  area  comprised  within  a  circle  with 
a  radius  of  500  metres,  from  any  central  point  upon  which 
he  may  fix.  This  operation,  however,  involves  the  danger 
of  clashing  with  older  properties,  and  ordinarily  the  pros- 
pector simply  searches  the  ground  until  he  finds  a  vein  or 
lode,  which  he  then  "  denounces."  At  the  nearest  revenue 
stamp  office  he  takes  out  a  certificate,  depositing  five 
dollars,  equal  to  ten  shillings  per  pertenencia.  The  govern- 
ment mining  agent  then  records  and  further  stamps  this 
document,  the  other  fees  are  paid,  and  a  surveyor 
appointed  within  two  months.  If  approved,  the  denouncer 
is  given  a  certain  time  to  mark  out  his  claim  with  rough 
stone  monuments.  The  total  time  required  to  secure  a 
title  is  about  six  months,  and  development  work  may 
proceed  during  the  period.  The  annual  tax  is  three  dollars 
per  pertenencia,  and  as  long  as  the  tax  is  paid  the  property 
is  held.  All  mineral  rights  in  Mexico,  as  in  Spanish  America 
generally,  are  the  property  of  the  state  or  nation,  and  are 
regarded  as  leased,  the  ordinary  land  title  not  giving 
possession  to  minerals,  nor  can  the  private  owner  of  land 
hinder  prospecting,  except  in  certain  positions.  Formerly 
this  was  not  the  case,  and  the  estate  owners  imposed 
obstacles  and  onerous  burdens  upon  the  prospector  and 


424  CENTRAL   AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

miner,  so  that  the  existing  law  was  a  measure  of  reform. 
The  mine  is  bounded  by  the  area  of  the  claim,  and  a  lode 
or  vein  cannot  be  followed  outside,  as  in  other  countries. 

The  oilfields  of  Mexico  are  of  great  importance.  In  the 
year  1910  Mexico  imported  1,000,000  barrels  of  crude  and 
refined  oil,  but  in  191 1  exported  more  than  700,000  barrels, 
part  of  an  output  of  several  millions  of  barrels.  One  of  the 
most  remarkable  flows  of  oil  in  the  world  was  opened  in  the 
state  of  Tampico.  Oil  began  to  flow  in  November,  1910, 
and  continued  for  several  months  before  it  could  be  brought 
under  control.  So  vast  was  the  pressure  and  volume  of 
the  oil  that  when  the  iron  valves  were  afterwards  opened 
to  test  the  pressure  the  jet  of  oil  rose  to  a  height  of  300  feet 
in  the  air,  with  a  flow  of  105,000  barrels  in  twenty-four  hours. 
Later  it  took  fire.  Mexico  is  one  of  the  foremost  oil-producing 
states  in  America,  and  British  and  American  capital  is 
largely  interested  in  the  production.  During  the  war  there 
were  serious  difliculties.  The  embargo  by  the  government 
on  the  Mexican  Eagle  Oil  Company — a  leading  enterprise — ■ 
was  withdrawn  only  at  the  end  of  1920.  This  company 
has  a  capital  of  160,000,000  Mexican  dollars:  it  yielded 
30,000,000  barrels  of  oil  in  1921  and  paid  a  dividend  of 
30  per  cent.  Trouble  has  resulted  upon  the  entrance  of  sea- 
water  into  the  wells,  in  certain  districts. 

The  utilisation  of  hydraulic  power  in  Mexico  has  advanced 
rapidly  in  certain  districts.  Upon  the  Conchos  river,  some 
fifteen  miles  from  Santa  Rosalia,  in  the  state  of  Chihuahua, 
a  dam  has  been  under  construction  for  several  years  with 
the  purpose  of  deriving  40,000  horse-power  from  the  river, 
capable  of  extension  to  90,000.  This  power  it  is  designed 
to  furnish  electrically  to  mines  and  mills  within  a  con- 
siderable radius,  including  Chihuahua  and  the  important 
mining  centres  of  Santa  Eulalia,  Santa  Barbara,  Parral, 
and  others.  The  falls  of  Junacatlan,  near  Guadalajara, 
are  already  utilised  ;  and  a  very  important  hydro-electric 
installation  at  Nexaca  exists.  In  numerous  parts  of  the 
republic,  north  and  south,  water  power  and  hydro-electric 
stations  have  been  installed  and  are  a  source  of  great 
value  to  industry. 


THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  MEXICO         425 

Mexico  cannot  in  general  be  considered  a  manufacturing 
nation,  but  it  has  some  claims  in  this  respect.  The  sugar 
and  cotton  industries  have  been  mentioned  earlier  and  are 
an  important  feature  of  national  industry,  and  their  future 
development  is  likely  to  render  the  country  entirely 
self-supplying  in  sugar  and  textile  fabrics.  The  cotton 
industry,  both  as  to  growing  and  manufacture,  is  protected 
by  a  high  tariff,  and  other  inducements  are  made  in 
order  to  encourage  export.  The  clothing,  both  of  woollen 
and  cottons  of  the  working  classes,  is  supphed,  and  good 
blankets,  shawls,  carpets,  cahcoes,  and  other  fabrics  are 
plentifully  produced.  There  are  over  500  flour  mills,  and 
seven  iron  and  steel  works,  including  the  great  plant  at 
Monterey ;  ninety  ore  smelting  works,  and  numerous  tobacco 
factories,  potteries,  tanneries,  breweries,  and  all  the  other 
usual  trades  in  considerable  number.  The  pohcy  of  the 
government  is  to  encourage  national  manufactures  ;  large 
amounts  of  foreign  capital  went  into  the  country  with  that 
object  in  view,  and  skilled  operatives  from  abroad,  and 
Mexico  is  an  example  of  a  people  who  might  render  them- 
selves to  a  large  extent  independent  of  the  products  of 
other  countries  (see  note,  end  of  chapter). 

Apart  from  the  railways,  means  of  communication  are 
difficult  in  Mexico,  which  is  a  country  of  very  few  and  poor 
roads  and,  in  general,  of  unnavigable  rivers.  The  railways 
of  Mexico  have  become  of  great  importance  during  the  last 
thirty  years.  The  aggregate  length  of  line  in  the  republic 
is  more  than  15,000  miles.  The  recent  railway  policy  of 
the  government  has  been  to  prevent  absorption  of  the 
trunk  hues  by  North  American  Trusts  ;  and  state  control 
of  some  of  the  principal  railways  has  been  brought  about 
by  the  method  of  acquiring  a  controlling  bulk  of  the  shares. 
The  first  important  railway  in  the  country  was  the  line 
from  Vera  Cruz  to  the  city  of  Mexico,  completed  in  1873, 
financed  and  built  by  a  British  company  under  subsidies 
from  the  Mexican  government,  elsewhere  described.  The 
capitalisation  of  this  enterprise  was  46,000,000  dollars,  and 
a  good  profit  has  been  reaped  from  its  operation.  Great 
topographical   difficulties   were  overcome  in   ascending   to 


426  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH  AMERICA 

the  Mexican  plateau  from  the  Gulf  coast,  the  altitude  of 
7,925  feet  above  sea  level  being  reached :  and  the  Une  is 
263  miles  long  between  Vera  Cruz  and  the  capital,  with 
heavy  gradients  involving  the  use  of  special  double-ended 
locomotives.  The  Ferrocarril  Interoceanico  is  the  second 
line  from  Vera  Cruz  to  the  capital.  Two  main  trunk  hnes 
extend  from  the  United  States  frontier,  along  the  plateau 
to  the  city  of  Mexico,  thus  estabhshing  efficient  communi- 
cation between  the  cities  of  both  republics.  The  train 
journey  from  New  York  to  the  Mexican  capital  occupies 
somewhat  more  than  four  days  and  nights  of  continuous 
travelling.  The  longer  of  the  two  lines  is  the  Mexican 
Central,  running  from  Ciudad  Juarez,  opposite  the  Texan 
town  of  El  Paso  on  the  Rio  Grande,  1,225  miles  long ;  and 
the  second  the  Mexican  National,  800  miles,  from  Laredo 
to  the  capital.  These  lines  were  built  by  United  States 
capitalists,  subsidised  by  the  Mexican  government.  The 
Mexican  International  railway  runs  from  the  American 
border,  at  Eagle  Pass  and  Ciudad  Porfirio  Diaz,  across  the 
great  plateau  to  Durango,  and  is  being  extended  to  Mazatlan 
on  the  Pacific  coast.  The  Mexican  Central  railway  has 
branches  to  Tampico,  on  the  Gulf  coast,  and  a  Une  is  under 
construction  to  the  important  seaport  on  the  Pacific  coast. 
There  is  also  a  line  to  Mazatlan,  and  one  from  Monterey 
to  Tampico.  During  the  war  the  Mexican  Railway  was 
sequestrated,  and  only  in  1921  returned  to  its  owners. 

The  "  National  Railways  "  of  Mexico  were  incorporated 
in  1908,  to  consolidate  the  Mexican  Central  and  the  Mexican 
National  and  some  other  lines,  with  a  capital  of  460,000,000 
dollars  ;  and  later  the  International  and  the  Vera  Cruz 
and  Isthmus  railroad,  the  Interoceanic  and  the  Mexican 
Southern  were  absorbed,  the  whole  involving  nearly  12,000 
miles  of  line.  The  government  has  a  controUing  interest 
in  the  huge  capital  stock  of  this  undertaking,  and  thus  is 
master  of  the  trunk  lines  of  the  republic.  Much  more 
economical  working  has  resulted  from  the  fusion,  and  the 
full  dividend  was  paid  on  the  first  preference  stock  in  191 1 
— an  improvement  on  earlier  finance,  which  for  long  was 
extremely  unsatisfactory.     The  Interoceanic  railway  earned 


THE   UNITED  STATES   OF  MEXICO         427 

gross  receipts  for  the  year  1911-12,  of  nearly  9,000,000 
Mexican  dollars,  leaving,  after  working  expenses  were  de- 
ducted, net  receipts  equal  to  £333,000.  Nearly  all  the 
locomotives  on  the  system  have  been  converted  into  oil- 
burning  engines,  with  a  considerable  saving  over  coal  fuel. 

The  most  important  transcontinental  railway  of  Mexico 
is  the  Tehuantepec  line,  across  the  isthmus  of  that  name, 
which  crosses  the  water-parting  of  the  continent  at  an 
elevation  of  only  735  feet  above  sea  level.  The  railway  is 
192  miles  long  from  Puerto  Mexico  or  Coatzacoalcos,  on  the 
Gulf  side,  to  Salina  Cruz  on  the  Pacific  coast,  and  a  large 
outlay  has  been  made  in  the  constructions  of  docks  at  the 
two  ports.  The  railway  was  a  national  undertaking,  but 
was  reconstructed  by  and  leased  to  a  British  firm  ;  and  the 
total  cost  of  the  line  and  new  docks  was  £13,000,000.  A 
branch  line  from  the  Tehuantepec  railway  gives  communi- 
cation with  the  capital,  and  with  Vera  Cruz.  The  Tehuan- 
tepec railway  is  of  much  importance  internationally,  as 
affording  a  rapid  isthmian  route  for  passengers  and  mer- 
chandise across  the  continent  ;  and  there  are  steamship 
lines  operating  between  its  eastern  and  western  termini 
respectively  and  the  United  States  and  Japan.  The  carry- 
ing trade  of  the  Tehuantepec  line  has  grown  considerably 
of  late  years,  the  trans-isthmian  traffic  competing  severely 
with  its  rival  the  Panama  railway.  At  the  beginning  of  1907, 
when  the  line  was  first  available,  the  value  of  the  traffic 
was  11,500,000  dollars,  which  grew  in  1911  to  73,750,000 
dollars.  Thus  it  is  seen  that  the  Tehuantepec  railway  has 
acted  as  a  great  trade  stimulus,  but  what  the  effect  upon 
it  of  the  opening  of  the  Panama  canal  will  be  cannot  be 
forecasted. 

The  two  great  outlying  parts  of  Mexican  territory — the 
peninsulars  of  Lower  or  Baja  California  and  of  Yucatan, 
at  opposite  extremities  and  different  sides  of  the  country, 
are  much  isolated  from  the  general  life  of  the  nation,  having 
no  communication  by  railway.  Lower  California  is  an 
immense  tongue  of  land,  900  miles  long  and  100  broad  in 
places,  paralleling  the  Pacific  coast,  with  100  miles  of  open 
water  between  it   and  the  mainland.     It  is  largely  of  an 


428  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH  AMERICA 

arid  nature,  but  contains  many  valuable  mineral  deposits, 
and  other  elements,  the  use  of  which  doubtless  the 
future  will  reveal.  Yucatan  is  the  remarkable  flat,  forested, 
limestone  peninsular,  reaching  out  and  forming  the  south 
side  of  the  gulf  of  Mexico,  also  a  riverless  land,  but  containing 
in  the  strata  of  its  formation  singular  natural  wells  and 
underground  streams.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  great  henequen 
industry, and  is  famous  for  the  strange  ruins  of  the  Maya  civili- 
sation, described  in  the  following  chapter.  There  are  short 
lines  of  railway  connecting  the  port  of  Progreso  with  Merida, 
the  capital,  and  other  points.  Quintana  Roo,  the  adjoin- 
ing territory,  is  still  the  home  of  independent  Indian  tribes. 

The  foreign  trade  of  Mexico  formerly  revealed  a  generally 
steady  growth,  with  a  balance  in  favour  of  the  republic. 
The  annual  value  of  the  exports  before  the  war  was 
£30,000,000.  The  imports  were  £18,300,000,  a  falling-off 
of  £2,500,000.  The  national  revenue  was  estimated  at 
£10,350,000,  yielding  a  surplus  over  expenditure.  Recovery 
at  the  present  time  is  slow. 

Owing  to  favourable  conditions  of  transport  largely,  both 
by  land  and  water,  the  United  States  enjoys  the  major  part 
of  the  foreign  business  of  Mexico.  The  proportions  of  the 
imports  as  regards  American  and  European  traders  shew 
how  considerable  is  the  predominance  of  the  United  States. 
For  the  years  1909-10  the  proportions  were  :  United  States 
60  per  cent..  United  Kingdom  11. 5  per  cent.,  Germany  10.5 
per  cent.,  France  9  per  cent.  These  have  shewn  fluctuations 
since  1905,  when  they  stood  at  66,  9,  9.4  and  7.4  per  cent, 
respectively.  The  Canadian  imports  into  Mexico  grew  from 
a  nominal  amount  in  1905  to  1.2  percent,  in  1910,  but  have 
since  shewn  a  dechne.  For  the  year  1911-12  the  imports 
from  the  United  States  were  of  a  value  of  £9,842,000  ;  from 
Germany  £2,384,000  ;  from  the  United  Kingdom  £2,147,000  ; 
and  from  France  £1,566,000.  The  United  States  were  there- 
fore greatly  in  the  lead. 

The  influence  of  the  United  States  on  Mexico  is  very 
considerable,  even  if,  as  has  been  elsewhere  observed,  the 
American  individuality  does  not  exercise  much  influence 
on  the  strong  Spanish  personality  of  the  educated  Mexican. 


Photo 


Underwood  &  Undcnvnod 
Native  Girls  of  Tehuantepec 


THE  UNITED  STATES   OF  MEXICO         429 

The  proximity  of  Mexico  to  the  United  States,  and  the 
relatively  abundant  means  of  railway  communication 
between  the  two  republics,  naturally  lead  to  constant 
interchange  of  visitors  and  commercial  and  tourist  traffic. 
During  the  regimen  of  President  Diaz,  in  the  last  decade  of 
the  nineteenth  and  the  first  of  the  present  century,  the 
attitude  of  the  American  towards  the  Mexican  undcr\\ent  a 
profound  change.  Before  that  period  the  American  held 
his  southern  neighbour  in  a  certain  amount  of  contempt. 
Socially  he  knew  little  of  him,  except  that  he  was  a  stub- 
born fighter  who,  in  that  respect — notwithstanding  the 
American  invasion  of  Mexico  in  1849  ^-^^  subsequently, 
and  the  hoisting  of  the  stars  and  stripes  in  the  Mexican 
capital — he  could  by  no  means  despise.  The  knowledge  each 
people  had  of  the  other  was  gained  principally  from  the 
frontier  character.  Mexicans  were  popularly  known  as 
"  greasers,"  in  Texas  and  the  other  western  states,  to  the 
American  ;  whilst  the  latter  was  an  arrogant  and  vulgar 
"  yanqui  "  in  the  Mexican  estimation,  with  little  know- 
ledge of  the  arts  and  bearing  of  the  Caballero.  The  man 
from  New  York,  Chicago,  St.  Louis,  or  San  Francisco  knew 
little  of  a  distinguished,  polished  race  who  dwelt  in  a  beauti- 
ful capital  near  the  extremity  of  the  continent  :  a  city 
which,  when  he  had  discovered  it,  he  dubbed  the  "  Paris  " 
of  North  America,  and  freely  visited  it  to  escape  the  severe 
winters  or  suffocating  heat  of  New  York  and  Chicago  ;  made 
of  it  a  health  resort,  and  associated  with  its  fair  daughters ; 
that  is  when  entrance  could  be  gained  into  the  bosom 
of  the  Mexican  family,  which  was  not  always  the  case,  as 
no  more  exclusive  race  exists.  The  American  was  obliged 
to  content  himself — and  that  was  indeed  his  real  business 
in  Mexico — in  taking  up  concessions  for  railways,  mines, 
factories,  and  rubber  lands,  or  in  opening  an  office  for  the 
sale  of  machinery  or  other  commodities.  The  Mexican, 
being  as  a  rule  much  more  a  man  of  the  world  than  his 
so-called  "  cousin "  from  the  north,  who,  although  an 
energetic  and  well-meaning  element  generally,  did  by  no 
means  as  a  rule  represent  the  best  of  his  nationality,  fully 
comprehended  the  character  of  the  "  Americano,"  welcomed 


430  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

the  inflow  of  his  gold,  and  made  him  at  home  in  many  ways, 
except  perhaps  socially.  He  gave  him  valuable  concessions, 
and,  taking  his  tone  from  the  deportment  of  the  powerful 
Diaz,  with  his  progressive  poUcy,  strove  to  bridge  over  that 
hiatus  between  the  two  people  which  a  former  president, 
Lerdo,  had  striven  to  maintain,  in  his  dictum  of  :  "  Between 
weakness  and  strength — the  desert !  "  In  the  first  years  of 
this  century  there  were  more  than  15,000  Americans  in  the 
republic,  a  total  greater  than  all  other  foreigners,  except 
Spaniards,  combined.  A  spirit  of  strong,  commercial  friend- 
liness grew  up,  more  or  less  underlaid  in  some  cases  by  less 
agreeable  sentiments — for  a  certain  class  of  ]\Iexicans  have 
never  forgotten  the  annexation,  by  the  United  States,  of  the 
huge  territories  of  Texas  and  others  in  the  year  1845. 
Furthermore,  there  was  always  a  strong  party  who  saw  a 
menace  to  Mexican  nationhood  in  the  lavish  encouragement 
of  American  capital  and  people  into  the  country.  The  church 
party  and  the  more  conservative  element,  and  the  aristo- 
cratic older  families,  regarded  the  modem  American  invasion 
with  extreme  dislike  and  distrust.  The  often  common  and 
undistinguished  demeanour  of  the  man  from  the  north  was 
something  they  could  not  forgive,  and  to  them  it  outweighed 
his  good  qualities.  But  this  element — which,  if  it  could  have 
had  its  way,  would  have  taken  Mexico  back  to  the  social 
condition  of  the  Middle  Ages — was  outweighed  by  the  "  pro- 
gressive "  forces,  and  perforce  remained  inoperative.  The 
American,  for  his  part,  learned  the  poUte  national  salute  of 
his  Mexican  acquaintance  in  the  streets,  and  upon  entering 
office  or  counting-house — customs  generally  foreign  to  him — 
and  indeed  grew  to  regard  the  country  with  affection  ;  and 
he  often  settled  down  in  Mexico  and  even  married  among 
the  people.  Little  but  what  is  good  resulted  from  the 
approach  of  the  two  dominating  North  American  peoples. 
But  at  the  present  time  the  political  disturbances  of  Mexico 
have  interrupted  the  growth  of  the  entente.  Mutual  respect 
which  was  being  built  up  has  unfortunately  been  destroyed 
by  lawless  Mexican  behaviour.  The  commerce  between 
the  two  nations  is  far  greater,  it  is  seen,  than  between 
Mexico   and   any   European   country.      Mexico,    however. 


THE  UNITED   STATES   OF   MEXICO  431 

still  looks  towards  France  as  the  land  of  her  ideals,  and 
to  England  as  the  home  of  morality  in  commercialism 
and  leadership  of  social  advancement;  and  both  English 
and  French  are  very  widely  spoken  by  the  educated 
Mexican. 

The  Mexican  repiibHc,  up  to  the  time  of  the  deposition 
of  Diaz,  had  for  ten  years  shewn  an  accumulation  of  budget 
surpluses,  aggregating  more  than  £13,500,000.  This  large 
sum  arose  out  of  domestic  administration  alone,  during  the 
administration  of  the  clever  financier  Sen  or  Limantour,  dis- 
tinct from  items  of  extraordinary  expenditure,  such  as 
railways  and  public  works,  etc.  The  figures  of  the  Mexican 
budget  before  the  war  shewed  an  estimated  revenue  of 
£11,153,400,  and  estimated  expenditure  of  £11,152,700.  It 
is  thus  noteworthy  that,  despite  its  political  troubles  and 
revolutions,  the  Mexican  treasury  balance  was  maintained, 
and  public  finance  continued  its  course  but  little  impaired, 
as  far  as  those  returns  shew;  but  conditions  have  altered. 

Several  causes  operate  against  the  more  rapid  develop- 
ment and  advance  of  the  Mexican  nation  :  the  turbulent 
political  and  revolutionary  element,  which  it  had  been  hoped 
was  stamped  out,  but  which  has  re-acted  ;  the  too  consider- 
able influence  of  the  church  and  the  priestly  regimen  ;  the 
relatively  slow  growth  of  education,  and  the  monopoly  of 
the  wealth  of  the  country  in  the  hands  of  a  few.  The  main 
bulk  of  the  Mexican  people  own  no  property,  carry  on  no 
remunerative  industry,  and  do  not  labour  under  conditions 
productive  to  themselves.  These  circumstances  are  re- 
flected in  the  low  taxable  capacity  of  the  population,  and 
the  dechne  of  national  prosperity  in  times  of  commercial 
depression  or  political  disturbance.  Whilst  the  conditions 
of  the  lower  classes  of  Mexico  are  extremely  backward, 
some  considerable  improvement  was  made  during  the  long 
Diaz  regimen.  Before  that  period  indolence  and  crime  were 
more  marked  ;  the  roads  were  infested  with  brigands,  and 
revolution  succeeded  revolution  with  a  frequency  not 
attained  in  any  other  Latin- American  state.  Near  the  close 
of  the  period  the  country  enjoyed  internal  peace  and  excel- 
lent  relations   abroad,   and   the   development   of   railways 


432  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH  AMERICA 

and  mines  under  the  stimulus  of  foreign  capital  had  reached 
a  height  never  attained  before.  This  development  pro- 
duced much  greater  wealth  for  the  community  on  a  whole, 
but  the  benefits  which  have  filtered  down  individually  to 
the  peon  and  lower  classes  generally  are  relatively  small. 
The  amount  of  foreign  capital  and  large  number  of  expert 
foreign  operatives  that  entered  the  country,  and  established 
manufacturers  under  the  Diaz  regimen,  were  not  without 
some  effect  on  the  character  of  the  Mexican  generally.  The 
political  disorders  in  Mexico  are  the  legacy  of  long  years  of 
misrule  of  various  kinds,  the  misrule  of  politicians,  the  mis- 
rule of  a  governing  class  which  monopolised  the  land  and 
means  of  production,  and  lastly  of  that  peculiar  form  of 
misrule  which  thought  to  find  in  the  material  progress  of  a 
capitalist  class,  and  the  advent  of  foreign  enterprise  by  the 
road  of  the  concession  hunter,  the  principal  method  of 
betterment  for  the  community.  There  is  a  certain  element 
of  Mexicans  who  were  always  lawless,  impatient  of  any 
political  control,  and  ready  under  small  pretext  to  plunge  the 
country  into  revolution.  But  the  bulk  of  the  Mexican  people 
are  not  lawless  by  nature,  and  suffer  by  reason  of  the  small 
lawless  element.  The  educated  upper  class,  the  people 
of  Spanish  blood,  are  generally  peaceful  and  enterprising 
traders  ;  and  the  mestizos,  forming  the  body  of  the  nation, 
ask  nothing  more  than  to  work  and  prosper  ;  whilst  the 
great  peon  class  are  docile  and  without  initiative  for  creat- 
ing pohtical  disturbance. 

Note. — ^The  favourable  conditions  in  Mexico  have  been 
seriously  reversed  during  the  decade  since  this  book  was 
first  published.  Foreign  property  has  been  commandeered 
and  foreigners  ill-treated,  in  some  cases  assassinated  or 
driven  away;  presidents  and  ministers  killed,  and  economic 
life  ruined.  However,  in  1922  better  conditions  appear: 
the  customs  revenue  is  the  largest  known:  an  agreement 
has  been  entered  into  to  cover  the  foreign  debt  in  securities, 
etc.,  of  £140,000,000,  by  oil  and  railway  taxes. 


THE  AZTEC  AND   MAYA   ARCHAEOLOGY     433 


CHAPTER     Xni 
THE  AZTEC  AND   MAYA  ARCHEOLOGY 

Mexico  and  Central  America  form,  archaeologically,  a  region 
of  great  interest,  not  inferior  in  this  respect  to  Peru  and 
Bolivia.  This  portion  of  America  was  the  home  in  pre- 
Hispanic  times  of  several  distinct  but  connected  civihsa- 
tions,  whose  evolved  or  derived  cultures  and  building  powers 
were  the  admiration  of  the  first  European  adventurers,  and 
to-day  are  subjects  of  deep  interest  to  the  antiquarian.  It 
is  not  the  purpose  in  this  chapter  to  enter  into  a  full  descrip- 
tion of  these  ancient  civilisations,  but  to  provide  a  few 
broad  details  concerning  the  existing  structures  and  remains 
scattered  throughout  the  region.  The  state  of  civilisation 
existing  at  the  time  of  the  Conquest  has  not  been  without 
exaggeration,  both  by  the  Spaniards,  who  strove  to  repre- 
sent the  things  they  encountered  in  high  colours  to  their 
monarch  and  countrymen,  and  also  by  later  writers.  The 
great  bulk  of  the  early  Mexicans  lived — as  many  of  them 
do  to-day — in  huts  of  mud  or  reed  ;  and  the  stone  buildings, 
whose  beauty  and  ingenuity  need  no  exaggeration,  were 
structures  of  a  special  nature. 

The  valley  of  Mexico  was  the  seat  of  the  Aztecs  and 
kindred  peoples,  themselves  successors  to  the  far  more 
ancient  Toltecs  ;  evidence  of  whose  arts  exist  in  the  great 
pyramids  encountered  in  different  parts  of  the  region,  such 
as  those  at  Teotihuacan,  slightly  north  of  the  city  of  Mexico, 
Papantla,  Cholula  and  others.  South  of  this  region  hes 
the  seat  of  the  Zapotec  culture,  with  the  remarkable  ruins 
of  Mitla  as  its  centre  ;  and  still  further  south,  in  Yucatan, 
Chiapas,  and  the  republic  of  Guatemala,  the  Mayas  and 
Quiches  flourished,  and  left  to  posterity  the  extraordinary 

EE 


434  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 

pyramid-temples  and  objects  of  sculptured  stone  which  to-day 
stand  amid  the  jungles  and  forests  of  those  regions.  The 
monuments  of  these  ancient  civilisations  cover  a  very  large 
range  of  territory,  and  the  extent  and  variety  of  the  remains 
are  such  as  have  supplied  material  for  an  extensive  litera- 
ture. The  Toltec  pyramids  in  some  cases  rival  in  size  the 
pyramids  of  Egypt,  and  in  certain  points  of  construction 
the  stone-built  halls  of  the  Mayas  have  no  superior  among  the 
ancient  structures  of  the  world.  The  early  civilisations 
of  Mexico  and  Central  America  present  the  same  problem 
of  origin  or  development  as  those  of  Peru.  Recent  ex- 
cavations at  Teotihuacan  shew  that  various  culture  periods 
followed  each  other  in  Mexico  as  in  Peru.  The  Mexicans 
had  not  the  remarkable  land  laws  and  social  system  of  the 
Incas,  but  they  were  more  advanced  in  the  evolution  of  a 
"literature"  in  their  picture-writing.  In  their  rehgion 
also,  they  were  not  without  some  vision  of  an  unknown  God. 
Whether  the  early  Peru\dan  and  Mexican  cultures  were 
indigenous — the  result  of  the  national  reaction  of  man 
to  his  environment — or  whether  they  were  offshoots  of  Old 
World  cultures  are  problems  which  have  occupied  much 
attention,  but  which  are  still  unsolved.  Both  aspects 
of  the  question  have  their  adherents.  Of  the  Toltecs  little 
is  known.  The  Aztecs  were  in  their  full  prosperity  when  the 
Spaniards  under  Cortes  arrived,  but  the  Mayas  were  more 
or  less  decadent.  Whatever  may  be  the  truth  regarding 
their  origin,  the  culture  they  displayed  must  have  taken 
an  equal  time  to  develop  with  those  of  the  Old  World. 
The  tendency  exists  among  anthropologists  to  admit  a 
common  origin,  if  very  remote,  between  the  tribes  of  Tartary 
and  America :  and  the  resemblance  may  be  noted  by  any 
traveller.  This,  however,  may  be  a  circumstance  apart  from 
any  relationship  in  culture  origin. 

The  northernmost  monument  or  ruin  of  the  pre-Hispanic 
people  in  Mexico*  is  that  at  Quemada,  in  the  state  of  Zacate- 
cas,  consisting  in  the  remains  of  a  stone  building  of  some 

*  The  archaeology'  of  Western  North  America,  Mexico,  and  Pern  is 
described  and  illustrated  in  the  author's  book,  "  The  Secret  of  the 
Pacific."     T.  Fisher  Unwin,  London,  1912, 


THE   AZTEC  AND   MAYA   ARCHAEOLOGY     435 

considerable  extent.  North  of  this  the  remains  are  mainly  of 
adobe,  such  as  the  remarkable  ruins  of  the  great  community 
house  of  Casas  Grandes,  upon  the  United  States  border, 
near  Ciudad  Juarez.  Far  to  the  north  of  the  border,  in 
Arizona,  Utah  and  Colorado,  are  the  famous  stone  buildings 
of  the  Cliff-Dwellers,  which  have  much  in  common  with 
the  more  primitive  works  of  the  Aztecs  of  Mexico,  and  their 
contemporaries  or  predecessors. 

It  is  to  the  Toltecs — a  vague  and  shadowy  people  of  whom 
more  is  conjectured  than  really  known — that  the  most 
striking  monuments  north  of  the  city  of  Mexico  are  attri- 
buted :  the  famous  pyramids  or  teocallis  of  the  Sun  and  the 
Moon  at  San  Juan  Teotihuacan,  in  the  valley  of  Mexico  ;  and 
this  great  Egyptian-hke  structure  is  the  chief  riddle  of  early 
Mexico.  The  pyramid  of  the  Sun  is  700  feet  long  on  the  base 
and  nearly  200  feet  high,  and  exploration  and  restoration 
work  has  been  carried  out  of  late  by  the  Mexican  govern- 
ments. The  structure  is  perfectly  oriented  ;  its  principal 
side  to  the  east.  It  consists  in  four  terraced  portions,  and 
is  truncated  :  and  upon  the  summit  platform,  tradition 
states,  an  image  of  the  sun-god,  with  a  burnished  gold 
plate  upon  its  breast,  flashed  back  the  rays  of  the  rising 
sun. 

In  the  national  museum  of  the  city  of  Mexico  are  pre- 
served a  large,  interesting  collection  of  objects,  mainly 
of  sculptured  stone,  of  Toltec,  Aztec  and  Maya  origin. 
Principal  among  these  is  the  famous  Calendar  stone  of  the 
Aztecs,  or  sun-stone,  a  beautiful  and  massive  monolith  of 
carved  basalt,  circular  in  form,  and  twelve  feet  in  diameter. 
The  stone  was  both  a  sun-dial  and  a  calendar,  such  as  the 
Egyptians  and  the  Chaldeans  used,  and  the  procession  of 
cyclical  animals  carved  thereon,  and  other  characteristics, 
have  given  rise  to  the  assumption  by  various  authorities — 
among  them  Humboldt — that  the  chronological  system  which 
produced  the  stone  must  have  had  some  connection  with  that 
of  the  Tartar  zodiac,  and  possibly  the  Chinese  and  Indian 
astronomical  systems.  A  translation  of  a  hieroglyphic  on 
the  stone  has  given  its  age  as  from  the  year  1479  a.u.  ;  but 
it  must  have  been  a  copy  of  a  previous  example,  handed 


436  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

down  or  evolved  through  thousands  of  years.  Other 
remarkable  objects  are  the  sacrificial  stone,  nearly  nine  feet 
in  diameter,  circular,  and  beautifully  sculptured  with 
figures,  from  a  block  of  trachyte.  Upon  this  stone  the 
human  victims  in  the  appalling  religious  sacrifices  of  the 
Aztecs  were  butchered,  their  breasts  cut  open  with  obsidian 
knives  and  the  still-beating  heart  torn  out  and  flung  before 
the  statue  of  the  war-gods,  in  the  temples  on  the  summit 
of  the  teocalli  or  pyramid.  Most  terrible  and  repulsive  of 
all  the  idols  which  have  been  recovered  is  that  of  Coatlique, 
the  woman-god,  or  goddess  of  the  dead,  a  figure  which  it  is 
supposed  was  placed  on  the  summit  of  the  teocalli  of  the 
capital,  as  it  was  found  buried  in  the  great  plaza  of  Mexico 
city.  It  is  also  of  trachyte,  eight  feet  and  a  half  high, 
carved  with  a  skirt  of  serpents,  and  half-human  head  and 
hands.  This  striking  and  repulsive  idol  is  preserved  in  the 
museum,  along  with  many  other  objects  of  almost  equal 
interest,  including  various  other  huge  sculptured  figures, 
in  some  cases  presenting  features  curiously  "  Egyptian  "  in 
character. 

Others  of  the  well-known  pyramids  and  mounds  of  Mexico 
are  those  of  Papantla,  near  Vera  Cruz,  remarkable  for  its 
likeness  with  similar  works  in  the  Old  World  :  Xochicalco, 
a  small  structure  of  elaborately  sculptured  stone,  and 
Cholula,  larger  than  the  pyramid  of  Cheops,  measuring 
1,440  feet  on  the  base,  but  much  deformed  by  time. 

Further  towards  the  south,  in  the  state  of  Oaxaca,  lie 
Monte  Alban  and  Mitla.  In  the  first  named,  entire  crests 
of  hills  have  been  cut  away  to  form  terraces  on  the  summits, 
and  pyramids,  courts  and  quadrangles  constructed  thereon  ; 
and  the  work,  hke  that  of  Teotihuacan,  must  have  called  for 
an  astonishing  display  of  power  by  their  constructors,  and  in- 
volved the  labour  of  a  numerous  population :  doubtless  under 
the  mandates,  for  generations,  of  Mexican  Pharoahs. 
The  beautiful  ruins  of  Mitla  are  still  in  a  fine  state  of  pre- 
servation, and  exhibit  an  extensive  series  of  halls,  walls  and 
doorways,  great  monolithic  columns  and  lintels,  and  highly- 
sculptured  fa9ades.  The  Hall  of  the  MonoHths  is  125  feet 
long,  with  a  row  of  columns  down  the  centre  formed  of 


J 


A 


U     ! 


Photo 


Underwood  &  Underwood 
The  Aztec  Calendar  Stone,  Mexico 


THE   AZTEC   AND    MAYA    ARCHAEOLOGY     437 

shafts  of  trachyte,  twenty  feet  long  and  in  some  cases 
weighing  twenty  tons,  which  were  quarried  five  miles  away 
in  the  hills  1,000  feet  above  the  site  of  the  buildings,  and 
transported  thereto  by  methods  which  can  scarcely  be  con- 
jectured. Some  column-stones  still  remain  in  the  quarry 
unmoved.  The  most  striking  features  of  Mitla,  however,  are 
the  richly  carved  and  fretted  walls,  interior  and  exterior  ;  * 
a  beautifully  executed  "  Greek  "  pattern  or  geometrical 
design,  in  which  is  traced  the  square  or  zig-zag  fret  and 
"stepped"  pattern  encountered  from  Arizona  to  Peru,  and 
on  textile  fabrics  throughout  Mexico  and  Peru,  and  even 
among  the  Indians  of  the  Amazon  and  of  Panama  ;  and 
such  as  is  figured  on  Japanese  and  Chinese  sculpture,  and 
is,  in  brief,  a  common  ornament  throughout  the  world. 
With  this,  and  in  its  world-wide  occurrence,  is  associated 
the  familar  device  of  the  Swastika.  Mitla  is  one  of  the 
greatest  archaeological  mysteries  of  the  world,  and  it  is  con- 
jectured that  it  was  the  abode  of  some  peculiar  religious  sect, 
possibly  of  a  character  such  as  is  revealed  in  Buddhist  lands. 
South,  or  rather  east,  of  Mitla  begins  the  archaeological 
region  of  Central  America,  the  home  of  the  Maya  and 
Quiche  cultures.  In  some  respects  the  extensive  series  of 
halls  and  pyramids  there  encountered — which  astonished 
Europe  when  they  were  discovered,  and  which  still  excite 
the  admiration  of  the  traveller — are  the  most  remarkable 
in  the  New  World.  They  protrude  from  the  jungle  which 
has  overwhelmed  them,  like  fairy  places,  the  creation  of 
myths  rather  than  actual  fact.  The  principal  of  these 
ruins  lie  in  the  north  of  the  peninsular  of  Yucatan,  known  as 
Uxmal  and  Chichen  Itza,  followed  by  those  of  Palenque 
in  the  state  of  Chiapas,  and  Ouirigua  and  Copan,  across 
the  border  in  Guatemala,  with  other  numerous  remains 
scattered  throughout  Central  America.  Some  represent 
the  ruins  of  entire  cities  which  once  flourished  there, 
others  of  single  structures.  They  comprise  pyramids  with 
temples  on  the  summit  platform,  reached  by  staircases  ; 
sometimes  built  of  adobe,  but  in  general  of  stone  with  a 
covering    of    carved    slabs ;     halls,    quadrangles,    galleries, 

*  Illustrated  in  "  The  Secret  of  the  Pacific,"  ante. 


438  CENTRAL   AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

dwellings  for  priests,  subterranean  works,  "  tennis  courts" — 
for  in  these  structures  the  early  Mexicans  played  a  ball  game 
with  an  india  rubber  ball ;  also  sculptural  figures,  friezes, 
stairways  and  other  matters  ;  and  at  Copan  and  Ouirigua 
great  carved  stelae,  and  enormous  stones  sculptured  in  the 
form  of  reptiles.  Uxmal  contains  five  great  groups  of 
structures  :  vast  halls  of  stone,  with  facings  and  decora- 
tions executed  with  great  skill.  The  buildings  are  generally 
rectangular  in  form,  with  one  or  two  stories,  having  roof- 
crests  of  remarkable  shape  which  give  an  appearance  of 
great  height.  The  interior  construction  is  that  of  the  Maya 
"  arch "  or  rather  vault,  for  the  true  principle  of  the 
arch  was  unknown  in  early  Mexico  as  in  early  Peru. 
Among  the  chief  buildings  is  the  "  Temple  of  the  Magicians  " 
so-called,  upon  a  pyramid  240  feet  long  on  the  base,  with 
a  wide  stone  stairway  leading  to  the  summit,  upon  which 
are  situated  the  vaulted  chambers.  The  "  Nunnery,"  the 
"  House  of  the  Turtles,"  the  "  House  of  the  Pigeons,"  the 
"  Governor's  Palace  "  are  other  structures  at  Uxmal  of  a 
somewhat  similar  character.  They  appear  to  have  been 
communal  dwellings  for  priestly  orders.  The  feathered 
serpent,  well  known  as  an  early  Mexican  or  Mayan  emblem, 
is  constantly  sculptured  upon  the  walls  and  columns,  in  the 
mytho-aesthetic  motive  of  the  decorations. 

Chichen  Itza  is  scarcely  less  noteworth}^  There  are  eight 
principal  bodies  of  ruins,  grouped  round  two  natural  flowing 
"  sacred  "  wells,  the  cenotes,  which  exist  in  the  singular 
limestone  formation  of  Yucatan.  The  beautiful  facades 
of  the  temples  and  halls  of  Chichen  reveal  singular  designs, 
in  which  some  archaeologists  have  endeavoured  to  prove 
Indian,  Bhuddist,  Japanese  and  Egyptian  traits.  The 
largest  well  is  350  feet  long.  The  "  Casa  de  Monjas,"  one 
of  the  principal  buildings,  is  of  three  storeys,  and  includes 
the  "  Caracol,"  a  small  round  structure;  also  "  El  Castillo," 
an  ornate  temple  on  the  summit  of  a  peculiar  pyramid  200 
feet  on  the  square,  and  seventy-five  feet  high,  adorned  with 
serpent  pillars  ;  and  another  temple-pyram.id  with  caryatid 
figures ;  also  a  tennis  court  and  the  "  Temple  of  the  Tigers  " 
with  coloured  reliefs. 


THE   AZTEC   AND   MAYA   ARCHAEOLOGY     439 

The  exquisite  execution  of  this  work  gives  rise  to  the 
question,  as  it  does  with  regard  to  the  trachyte  figures  in 
the  Mexican  museum,  of  how  such  work  could  be  performed 
without  the  use  of  steel  tools  :  and  how  buildings  of  so 
excellent  a  form  of  construction  could  be  built  without — 
presumably — any  instruments  of  precision.  Buildings  are 
true  and  plumb  and  scientifically  formed. 

At  Quirigua  in  Guatemala,  in  a  valley  which  has  been 
described  as  "a  sheltered  tropical  paradise,"  and  scattered 
over  an  area  of  some  200  square  miles,  are  the  remains  and 
monuments  of  the  Mayas ;  mounds,  monoliths,  graves, 
buildings  ;  silent  witnesses  to  a  bygone  people,  and  the 
centre  of  some  strange  old  civilisation.  The  principal 
monuments  are  the  great  sculptured  stelae,  or  vertical 
shafts  of  stone,  still  standing  in  their  original  position. 
These  are  of  sandstone,  the  carving  in  low  relief,  exceed- 
ingly ornate,  the  tallest  being  twenty  feet  above  the  ground, 
and  probably  ten  feet  below,  and  five  feet  square.  They  are 
remarkably  well  preserved,and,are  maintained  by  the  govern- 
ment as  public  property.  Some  are  carved  with  the  faces 
of  women,  others  with  hieroglyphics,  and  upon  some  figures 
the  "  sphent  "  or  headdress  of  the  Egyptian  is  observed, 
or  at  least  some  have  traced  the  similarity.  The  ruined 
city  of  Quirigua  hes  in  the  heart  of  the  jungle,  but  must 
have  formed  a  metropolis  in  pre-Hispanic  days. 

Guatemala  was  the  centre  of  the  great  Quiche  nation, 
which  was  ruthlessly  destroyed,  like  the  Aztecs  and  the 
Incas,  at  the  time  of  the  Spanish  Conquest,  but  various 
valuable  documents  remain,  which  throw  some  light  on  the 
religions  of  the  people,  including  the  famous  Popol  Vuh, 
containing  the  Quiche  version  of  the  creation  of  the  world, 
and  of  some  great  migration. 

Copan  lies  in  Honduras,  and  contains  ancient  sculptured 
buildings  and  terraced  structures,  which  have  been  made  the 
subject  of  a  good  deal  of  archaeological  investigation,  and 
from  which  some  examples  of  carvings  are  in  the  British 
Museum.  In  other  parts  of  Honduras  are  ruined  pyramids, 
terraced  stone  moimds,  ramparts  and  other  ancient  works, 
which  extend  into  Salvador  and  even  to  British  Honduras. 


440  CENTRAL   AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

but  appear  to  terminate  at  the  borders  of  Nicaragua  and 
Costa  Rica.  At  Chiriqui,  in  Panama,  however,  a  notable 
ancient  art  in  metal-craft  flourished,  as  shewn  by  the 
objects  recovered. 

In  Colombia  there  are  also  traditions  of  earlier  civilisa- 
tions and  remains  of  works,  in  the  form  of  roads  and  other 
matters,  and  taken  with  Ecuador  and  Peru  it  is  seen  that 
the  ancient  civilisation  of  America  flourished  with  more  or 
less  intensity  throughout  a  region  extending  over  70°  of 
latitude,  or  nearly  5,000  miles.  From  Babylon  to  Egypt, 
from  the  civilisation  of  the  Euphrates  to  that  of  the  Nile, 
was  but  a  thousand  miles,  and  thus  the  ancient  civilisations 
of  America  were  spread  over  a  wider  area  than  those  of  the 
Old  World.  What  the  connection  between  ancient  Mexico, 
Central  America,  and  Peru  was,  it  is  at  present  impossible 
to  say,  but  it  would  seem  reasonable  to  suppose  that  all 
these  cultures  had  a  common  basis,  although  they  may 
have  become  separated  later.  It  cannot  be  doubted  that, 
as  increasing  attention  is  directed  to  Latin  American 
archaeology,  the  problems  of  origin  and  development  of 
these  early  civilisations  will  be  solved.  The  structures 
themselves  are  of  the  utmost  interest,  and  fuller  measures 
should  be  taken  for  their  preservation. 


CENTRAL  AMERICA  441 


CHAPTER  XIV 
CENTRAL  AMERICA 

GUATEMALA,   HONDURAS,    BRITISH     HONDURAS,     NICARAGUA, 
SALVADOR,    COSTA    RICA,    PANAIVLA 

The  region  collectively  known  as  Central  America  is 
one  of  the  most  interesting  portion  of  Latin  America,  and 
embodies  six  independent  republics  and  the  British  Colony 
of  Honduras.  Geographically  it  is  taken  as  extending  from 
Panama,  to  Tehuantepec  in  Mexico,  but  politically  the 
southern  boundary  of  Mexico  is  the  limit  of  the  region. 
These  six  Central  American  repubUcs  have  much  in  common 
as  regards  their  physical  formation  and  inhabitants ;  although 
each  is  stamped  with  its  own  individuaUty,  and  jealous  of 
its  rights.  Guatemala,  Honduras,  and  Nicaragua  cover 
respectively  areas  of  48,000,  46,000,  and  49,000  square 
miles,  and  the  smaller  republics  of  Salvador,  Costa  Rica, 
and  Panama  cover  7,200,  23,000  and  32,000  square  miles 
respectively.     British  Honduras  covers  7,562  square  miles. 

Central  America,  physically,  may  be  regarded  as  a  transi- 
tional zone  of  territory  connecting  the  continents  of  North 
and  South  America,  rather  than  being  part  of  either.  It  is 
a  region  of  mountains  and  lowlands :  the  mountains  having 
many  high  plateaus  of  limited  extent,  and  containing  many 
volcanoes,  which  form  some  of  the  highest  summits  and  are 
among  the  most  destructive  on  the  earth's  surface.  Among 
the  principal  of  these  volcanoes  six  are  in  Guatemala,  two 
in  Salvador,  four  in  Nicaragua  and  four  in  Costa  Rica. 
Guatemala  and  Salvador  are  countries  possessing  more 
volcanoes  than  almost  an}'  other,  and  throughout  the  whole 
history    of  Central    America,  up   to   present   times,    these 


442  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

countries  have  suffered  greatly  from  eruption  and  earth- 
quake, with  repeated  overwhelming  of  cities  and  destruction 
of  plantations.  The  geological  formation  of  the  Central 
American  region  has  been  greatly  influenced  by  volcanic 
disturbances  in  past  ages.  It  forms,  as  it  were,  a  joint 
in  the  earth's  crust,  a  weak  point  subject  to  the  outburst  of 
the  forces  within.  In  earlier  geological  times,  it  has  been 
shewn,  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  oceans  were  connected  by 
various  straits  across  what  now  are  the  narrow  necks  of 
land  of  Central  America,  the  region  having  constituted  a 
great  insular  system  which  has  been  consolidated  in  later 
times.  Thus  the  cutting  of  the  Panama  Canal  may  be 
regarded,  in  a  sense,  as  reverting  to  earlier  hydrographic 
conditions. 

Historically,  Central  America  is  of  great  interest.  It  was 
on  September  i,  1513,  that  the  Spanish  explorer  Vasco 
Nuiiez  de  Balboa  began  his  march  across  the  Isthmus  of 
Panama,  and  on  the  25th,  having  ascended  the  range  of 
hills  forming  the  water-parting,  that  he  stood  "  silent  upon 
a  peak  in  Darien  " — silent  at  the  sight  of  an  enormous 
unknown  ocean  stretching  away  towards  the  west.  This 
was  the  first  view  of  the  Pacific  Ocean  by  the  white  man, 
from  its  eastern  side.  Four  days  later — it  was  IMichaelmas 
day,  15 13 — Balboa  waded  knee-deep  into  the  new  ocean, 
tasted  its  salt  waters,  and  cried  aloud  to  his  followers  : 
"  I  take  real  and  corporal  and  actual  possession  of  this  sea 
and  its  coasts  for  the  king  of  Spain  !  "  It  was  an  extensive 
claim  to  make.  On  the  one  hand  the  Pacific  coast  stretched 
northwardly  for  eight  thousand  miles  through  what  is  now 
Central  America,  Mexico,  California,  Oregon,  British 
Columbia  and  Alaska,  to  where  it  touches  the  fringe  of 
eastern  Asia  ;  on  the  other,  southwards  for  five  thousand 
miles  through  Columbia,  Ecuador,  Peru  and  Chile  to  Cape 
Horn. 

Although  not  an  acre  of  this  vast  territory  pertains 
to-day  to  the  country  whose  agents  discovered  it,  Spain 
has  nevertheless  left  her  imprint  indelibly  stamped  upon  it. 
The  whole  of  Central  America  was  formerly  united  in 
one  political  area.     Under  the  rule  of  Spain,  which  came  to 


CENTRAL  AMERICA  443 

a  close  in  182 1,  the  entire  region  from  Mexico  to  Panama 
was  embodied  in  a  single  administrative  division  :  the 
kingdom  of  Guatemala,  under  a  Captain-General,  inde- 
pendent of  the  viceroyalty  of  Mexico  and  South  America, 
and  directly  responsible  to  the  home  government.  After 
independence  was  gained  a  federal  republic  of  the  five 
states  was  set  up,  which  lasted  until  1842,  since  when 
independent  government  for  each  repubhc  has  been  main- 
tained. Some  attempts  since  have  been  made  to  consolidate 
the  region  poHtically  again,  but  have  not  been  carried  out. 
Alliances  and  peace  proposals,  on  the  contrary,  have 
generally  terminated  in  strife  and  bloodshed,  as  if  the 
people  inhabiting  the  land  partook  of  something  of  the 
turbulence  of  the  volcanic  region  on  which  they  have  their 
being.  As  a  whole  these  people  may  be  credited  with  good 
intentions — the  roads  to  their  political  and  financial  chaos 
are  paved  with  such.  A  Central  American  "  Hague  Tribunal  " 
or  Arbitration  Court  was  set  up  some  years  ago,  under 
treaties  signed  by  Honduras,  Costa  Rica,  Guatemala, 
Nicaragua  and  Salvador,  and  meets  when  occasion  requires 
judgment  upon  matters  at  issue  between  these  various 
states. 

The  geographical  position  of  Central  America  is  one  of 
extreme  importance,  and  the  whole  region,  including  the 
Antilles  and  West  India  Islands,  may  in  the  future  become 
the  centre  of  an  increased  maritime  and  commercial  move- 
ment ;  Central  America  forming,  as  it  were,  a  bridge  between 
the  two  great  oceans,  the  Pacific  and  the  Atlantic,  and  the 
two  American  continents :  midway  between  Asia  and  Europe. 
Only  the  future,  however,  can  show  if  this  assumed  import- 
ance will  be  compassed. 

The  Cordillera,  or  mountain  chain,  traverses  the  whole 
territory  of  Central  America  from  end  to  end,  except  that 
it  is  broken  by  the  great  lake-basin  of  Nicaragua.  The 
mountains  lie,  as  in  South  America,  much  closer  to  the 
Pacific  than  the  Atlantic,  except  that  in  Costa  Rica  and 
Panama  they  occupy  the  centre  of  those  narrower  terri- 
tories. The  eastern  side  of  the  region  consists  in  broad 
plains  and  highlands,  watered  by  numerous  rivers.     Central 


444  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH   AMERICA 

America  comprises  some  of  the  most  fertile  land  on  the 
earth's  surface  ;  and  the  landscape  and  scenery  are  among 
the  most  noteworthy,  and  the  natural  resources  of  the  soil 
the  most  prolific  of  the  whole  of  Latin  America.  The 
topography  of  the  region  gives  rise  to  the  vertical  climatic 
conditions  of  Tierra  caliente,  Tierra  templada  and  Tierra 
•fria,  or  hot,  temperate,  and  cold  lands,  a  range  of  tempera- 
ture from  tropical  to  temperate  which  ensures  the  pro- 
duction of  plant  life  of  all  kinds.  The  climate  generally 
is  healthy  except  in  certain  places  on  the  coast,  where  lack 
of  sanitary  improvements  and  neglect  of  common  hygienic 
conditions  give  rise  to  malarial  fevers  and  worse  disorders. 
In  some  zones,  as  at  Panama  formerly,  and  other  ports  on 
both  shores  of  Central  America,  yellow  fever  was  a  terrible 
scourge,  and  malarious  disorders  rendered  life  for  the 
foreigner  unsafe.  The  improvements  brought  about  at 
Panama,  under  the  control  of  the  United  States,  have 
shewn  that  these  tropical  scourges  are  not  inevitable 
conditions  of  Central  American  environment. 

The  total  population  of  the  Central  American  republics 
numbers  somewhat  more  than  6,000,000,  distributed 
approximately  as  to  2,200,000  in  Guatemala,  600,000  in 
Honduras,  740,000  in  Nicaragua,  2,000,000  in  Salvador, 
460,000  in  Costa  Rica,  and  400,000  in  Panama.  The 
estimates  of  population  are  very  approximate.  Accurate 
statistics  cannot  be  obtained,  partly  by  reason  of  the  ignor- 
ance of  the  masses  of  Indians  in  certain  regions,  and  largely 
by  reason  of  fear  of  military  conscription,  or  taxation, 
especially  in  Nicaragua  and  Honduras,  both  of  which 
matters  the  inhabitants  have  good  cause  to  avoid.  In 
Guatemala  60  per  cent,  of  the  population  are  pure  Indians  ; 
the  remainder  mestizos,  with  small  class  of  whites.  The 
Indian  tribes  are  more  diverse  than  in  any  part  of  Central 
America,  and  belong  principally  to  the  Maya  and  Quiche 
stocks,  who  in  olden  times  were  the  builders  of  the  famous 
Central  American  temples.  There  are  about  15,000 
foreigners  in  the  country  :  and  several  important  German 
coffee-growing  settlements.  In  Honduras  the  mestizos  are 
the  most  numerous,  and  the  white  element  is  small.     There 


CENTRAL   AMERICA  445 

are  many  Indian  tribes,  a  portion  of  which  are  Christianised, 
but  a  number,  of  about  go, 000,  still  retain  their  aboriginal 
mode  of  tribe  life,  living  in  the  mountains  and  cultivating 
the  soil.  These  Indians  are  good  and  industrious  labourers. 
On  the  north  coast  the  vigorous  Carib  race  is  found,  forming 
the  principal  source  of  labour  for  mahogany-cutting.  There 
is  a  considerable  but  disappearing  number  of  zambos  and 
negroes.  In  Nicaragua  the  population  is  largely  of  a  com- 
posite character,  formed  by  the  union  of  the  original  Indians, 
Spaniards,  and  negro  slaves.  Intermarriage  of  immigrants 
of  all  nations,  including  Dutch,  French  and  British,  has  pro- 
duced a  half-caste  type  with  blue  eyes  and  fair  hair,  an 
uncommon  type  for  a  Latin-American  country.  Indians  of 
pure  race  are  few,  as  they  were  almost  exterminated  in 
earher  times  by  the  Spanish  buccaneers  and  colonists. 
Salvador  is  the  most  thickly  populated  of  the  Central 
American  republics.  The  mestizos  or  "  ladinos,"  as  the  mixed 
race  is  commonly  termed  in  Central  America,  form  more 
than  half  the  total  ;  the  Indians  40  per  cent.,  and  the  whites 
and  foreigners  10  per  cent. ;  the  pure  whites  of  Spanish  race 
not  being  more  than  2  J  per  cent.  There  is  a  small  proportion 
of  negroes.  In  Costa  Rica  the  proportion  of  Spanish  blood 
is  greater  than  in  any  of  the  six  republics,  but  the  mestizos 
form  the  larger  proportion  of  the  inhabitants.  The  native 
Indians,  who  number  about  4,000,  are  of  a  quiet,  docile 
nature,  dwelling  in  stockaded  encampments,  in  a  still  savage 
and  unChristianised  state.  There  are  about  8,000  Europeans 
in  the  country.  In  Panama  the  population  is  extremely 
mixed,  due  to  the  labour  of  various  nationalities  brought 
in  for  the  building  of  the  canal.  Negroes  from  Jamaica 
predominate,  and  Spanish,  Italian  and  Greeks  are  plenti- 
ful. These,  however,  are  not  permanent  elements.  The 
population  upon  the  canal  zone  numbers  over  50,000; 
and  there  are  36,000  native  Indians  throughout  the 
country. 

The  birth-rate  in  the  Central  American  countries  is 
generally  a  high  one,  and  the  death-rate  low,  and  although 
there  is  little  or  no  immigration  the  population  tends 
rapidly  to  increase.    The  high  excess  of  births  over  deaths 


446  CENTRAL   AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

is  a  result  of  the  naturally  favourable  conditions  of  soil  and 
climate,  added  to  the  native  woman's  disposition  towards 
child-bearing,  characteristic  generally  of  the  Latin 
American  people.  In  Nicaragua,  Honduras,  and  Guatemala 
the  increase  in  population,  notwithstanding  the  constant 
political  unrest,  is  very  marked.  A  large  proportion  of 
the  births  are  illegitimate,  amounting  to  30  per  cent,  of  the 
whites  in  Guatemala,  and  50  per  cent,  of  mestizos  and 
Indians.  Guatemala  was  originally  the  home  of  the  great 
Quiche  nation,  and  of  people  of  Maya  stock,  who  had  reached 
a  high  degree  of  civilisation,  as  elsewhere  described. 

The  governments  of  the  Central  American  republics 
are  generally  of  the  centralised  system,  the  various 
countries  being  divided  into  departments,  with  jcfc-politicos 
or  political  governors  at  their  head.  Single  chamber 
government  prevails,  the  legislative  power  being  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies,  and  the  executive  power  the  President 
and  Cabinet.  The  president  and  deputies  are  elected 
according  to  the  constitution,  by  free  popular  vote  ;  but 
by  reason  of  political  influence,  dishonesty,  and  intimidation, 
the  result  of  free  suffrage  has  become  a  mere  travesty  of 
the  popular  voice.  The  governors  or  jefes  of  the  depart- 
ments are  appointed  by  the  Central  Executive  ;  the 
deputies  are  elected  under  the  system  of  proportional 
representation,  varying  as  to  numbers  in  the  different 
republics. 

Education  in  the  Central  American  states  is  generally 
extremely  backward,  and  practically  non-existent  in  certain 
regions.  In  Guatemala  80  per  cent,  of  the  population  can 
neither  read  nor  write,  and  the  proportion  varies  little 
in  the  other  republics.  Primary  education  is  free  and 
compulsory.  The  most  advanced  community  in  this 
respect  is  that  of  Costa  Rica,  but  the  Guatemalan  govern- 
ment is  making  strong  efforts  towards  improvement.  In  all 
the  republics  the  government  supports  the  schools  and 
educational  establishments,  but  lack  of  funds  and  pohtical 
unrest  prevent  the  consolidation  and  growth  of  public 
instraction.  The  Roman  Catholic  religion  prevails  in  every 
state,  but  other  creeds  may  be  in  general  practised  with 


CENTRAL  AMERICA  447 

liberty.  There  were  1,064  government  schools  in  Guatemala 
in  1903  and  a  number  of  private  schools  ;  and  the  owners 
of  plantations  on  which  the  labourers'  children  aggregate 
more  than  ten  are  obliged  by  law  to  provide  schools. 
Two  national  institutes,  one  for  men  and  one  for  women, 
exist  in  the  capital,  and  at  Quezaltenango  and  Chiquimula 
respectively  ;  and  for  professional  instruction  in  law,  medicine 
and  engineering  there  are  private,  government-aided  schools  ; 
also  a  national  conservatory  of  music,  a  commercial  college, 
national  library,  and  four  schools  of  trades.  There  is  also 
a  German  school,  endowed  by  the  German  government.  In 
all  schools  military  training  is  given.  Military  service  is  com- 
pulsory for  all  white  and  mestizo  citizens.  Guatemala,  in 
reality,  makes  considerable  pretensions  as  to  the  education 
of  its  people,  and  at  times  enthusiasm  is  aroused  on  the  sub- 
ject ;  but  the  great  bulk  of  the  people  remain  illiterate.  In 
religion  the  state  recognises  no  distinction  of  creed,  and  mon- 
astic institutions  are  prohibited  by  law.  The  national  Roman 
Catholic  creed  is,  however,  strong  among  the  people,  although 
a  large  section  of  the  upper  class  have  long  been  pronouncedly 
"  liberal,"  as  the  anti-clerical  element  is  termed. 

The  products  of  agricultural  and  forestal  industries,  as 
well  as  minerals  in  Central  America,  shew  the  exceedingly 
wide  range  of  natural  resources  of  which  this  rich  terri- 
tory is  possessed.  The  chief  plantations  are  owned  by 
Germans,  and  the  yearly  product  is  worth  about 
£1,500,000  sterling.  Somewhat  similar  conditions  of  coffee - 
production  prevail  in  Nicaragua,  the  German-owned 
plantations  producing  coffee  of  good  quality.  The  coffee 
of  Costa  Rica  is  especially  famous,  the  volcanic  soil  in 
places  possessing  peculiar  properties  favourable  for  the 
growth  of  the  shrub.  The  development  of  the  banana 
trade  in  various  parts  of  Central  America  has  become 
of  considerable  importance.  Rubber  planting  has  been 
successfully  carried  out  in  certain  districts.  Mahogany 
and  cedar  are  valuable  timber  products,  but  the  forests 
have  been  recklessly  destroyed  in  some  cases.  Almost  all 
the  fruits  of  the  tropic  and  temperate  regions  arc  produced, 
and  cattle-raising  is  carried  on  and  dairy  products  manu- 


448  CENTRAL   AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

factured.  Sugar  and  some  cotton  are  grown,  and  alcohol 
distilled.  Relatively  considerable  quantities  of  gold-dust 
and  bars  have  been  exported  from  Nicaragua,  Honduras, 
and  other  states,  most  of  which  are  rich  in  minerals. 

In  certain  of  the  Central  American  republics,  state  lands 
for  colonisation  are  to  be  obtained  on  easy  terms,  both 
under  free  grant  and  purchase.  The  Indians  upon  the 
plantations  in  Guatemala  and  other  states  live  often  in  a 
condition  akin  to  slavery  :  the  truck  system  and  peonage, 
under  which  contract  debts  are  incurred,  virtually  tying 
them  to  their  masters. 

GUATEMALA 

The  repubhc  of  Guatemala  is  bounded  on  the  north  and 
west  by  Mexico,  and  on  the  east  is  cut  off  from  the  Atlantic 
ocean,  except  for  a  few  miles  of  coast  line  and  the  seaport 
of  Puerto  Barrios,  by  British  Honduras.  To  the  east  and 
south  are  the  republics  of  Honduras  and  Salvador,  and  on 
the  south-west  the  Pacific  ocean. 

The  soil  of  Guatemala  is  largely  of  volcanic  origin,  and 
almost  everywhere  is  fertile,  yielding  products  which  vary 
greatly  according  to  the  elevation  of  the  land  above  sea  level. 
Almost  all  products  of  the  temperate  or  tropical  regions 
can  be  grown  to  perfection  within  the  borders  of  the  country, 
from  the  finest  cocoa  on  the  Pacific  coast  zone,  and  bananas, 
logwood,  and  mahogany  on  the  Gulf  shores,  to  wheat, 
potatoes,  and  all  kinds  of  sub-tropical  fruits  and  vegetables 
in  various  parts  of  the  temperate  regions.  The  low-lying 
plains  are  clothed,  especially  on  the  Atlantic  side,  with  a 
luxuriant  vegetation,  having  all  the  characteristics  of  the 
tropical  American  woodlands.  The  chief  commercial  pro- 
ducts are  maize,  sugar,  coffee,  cocoa,  and  cochineal.  As  in 
Mexico,  maize  is  ever5rwhere  grown,  yielding  one  crop 
annually  in  the  temperate  and  cold  zones,  and  two  and 
even  three  in  the  hot  coast  districts.  The  sugar-cane 
flourishes  up  to  an  altitude  of  about  5,000  feet,  which  also  is 
nearly  the  extreme  limit  of  coffee  culture  ;  and  cacao,  pro- 
perly a  tropical  plant,  no  higher  than  1,600  feet.     Wheat, 


CENTRAL  AMERICA  449 

on  the  other  hand,  thrives  on  the  uplands  above  5,500 
feet.  In  the  lowlands  and  slopes  somewhat  higher,  cotton, 
bananas,  and  indigo  are  cultivated,  although  not  in  large 
quantities.  Cacao,  sugar,  and  wheat  and  cotton  are  mostly 
consumed  in  the  country,  coffee  and  bananas  alone  being 
exported.  The  coffee  plantations  are  situated  chiefly  on 
the  lower  slopes  of  the  volcanic  range  facing  the  Pacific. 
This  long  tract  of  country,  hke  the  neighbouring  district 
of  Soconusco  in  Mexico,  is  remarkable  for  its  scenery, 
fertile  soil,  and  relatively  dry  and  pleasant  air ;  and  many 
foreigners  have  settled  in  this  maritime  region  and  in- 
vested a  good  deal  of  capital  in  the  coffee  industry.  The 
coffee  plantations  lie  mainly  between  2,000  and  4,500  feet 
above  sea  level  and  have  hitherto  escaped  the  attacks  of 
insect  pests,  showing  that  here  all  the  conditions  are  highly 
favourable  for  coffee  culture.  They  have,  however,  suffered 
in  some  cases  from  the  eruption  of  the  volcanoes.  The 
coffee  crop  has  yielded  annually  720,000  quintals.  The 
plantations  are  chiefly  in  the  hands  of  German  settlers. 

Other  plants  of  commercial  value  are — vanilla,  rubber, 
sisal,  giiava,  ginger,  oranges,  cacao,  cocoanut,  banana,  and 
plaintains,  the  last  two  being  the  most  important.  The 
cultivation  of  these  fruits  has  been  stimulated  by  govern- 
ment bounties,  and  the  establishment  of  regular  lines  of 
steamships  between  Livingston  and  New  Orleans.  Of 
the  200  recorded  varieties  of  bananas,  two  only,  one  red 
and  one  yellow,  are  raised  for  exportation.  The  former 
yields  from  200  to  250  pods  to  the  bunch,  weighing  unripe 
about  80  to  90  pounds.  The  plaintain,  which  greatly  re- 
sembles the  banana,  but  is  much  larger,  is  always  yellow  and 
rarely  has  more  than  thirty-six  fruits  to  the  bunch,  the  fruit 
being  often  more  than  a  foot  long,  and  more  palatable  and 
nutritive  than  the  banana.  When  dried,  this  fruit,  it  is 
stated,*  will  keep  for  twenty  years,  and  it  has  been  calcu- 
lated that  a  piece  of  rich  land  forty  feet  square  will  yield 
some  4,000  pounds  of  nutritive  substance  from  plantains, 
capable  of  supporting  fifty  persons,  while  the  same  land 
under  wheat  would  not  support  more  than  two. 

♦   "  Industria." 

FF 


450  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

Among  the  forest  growths  of  Guatemala  are  the  mahogany 
and  palm  of  the  lowlands,  and  the  pines  and  oaks  of  the 
uplands  :  one  species  of  oak,  which  is  smaller  and  much 
softer  than  the  European  variety,  bears  acorns  "  as  large  as 
the  largest  turkey  eggs."  Among  the  more  costly  woods 
are  the  cedar,  a  species  of  palisander,  the  so-called  rosewood, 
and  the  palmolatla,  a  close-grained  yellow  wood  streaked 
with  grey  and  brown  veins. 

There  is  in  Guatemala  water  power  for  future  manu- 
factures ;  and  considerable,  though  little  worked,  mineral 
wealth.  Gold,  silver,  lead,  tin,  copper,  mercury,  salt, 
sulphur,  antimony,  and  coal  are  all  found,  but  it  has  to  be 
demonstrated  that  they  are  commercially  exploitable. 

The  principal  towns  of  Guatemala,  with  their  popula- 
tions are  :  Guatemala  city  80,000,  Quezaltenango  30,000, 
Totonicapan  26,000,  Coban  25,000,  Solola  20,000,  Chiqui- 
mula  13,200,  Zacapa  12,600,  Escuintla  12,500,  Sta.  Cruz 
del  Quiche  12,000,  Salama  11,000,  Huehuetenango  10,800. 
The  principal  industries  of  which  they  are  the  centres,  are 
native  weaving,  cattle-rearing,  coffee,  cereals,  and  tobacco- 
growing,  and  in  some  cases  mining  and  small  manufactures. 

The  capital  cities  of  the  Central  American  republics 
are  in  some  cases  handsome  and  pleasing  in  appearance, 
with  conditions  of  climate  and  environment  of  much  beauty 
and  utility.  Guatemala  city  is  marked  by  a  general  air 
of  prosperity.  It  is  lighted  electrically,  and  possesses 
well-built  public  buildings,  wide,  regular  streets,  and  tree- 
planted  avenues,  broad  plazas,  numerous  fine  churches, 
theatres,  museums,  and  a  number  of  schools  for  both  sexes. 
The  houses  are  built  low  in  order  to  minimise  the  danger 
from  earthquake  shocks,  which  have  entirely  destroyed  the 
city  in  earlier  years.  The  population  is  about  80,000 
people.  Guatemala  city  is  by  far  the  largest  city  in  Central 
America.  It  is  built  upon  a  fertile,  spacious  tableland, 
5,000  feet  above  sea  level,  and  is  surrounded  by  lofty 
mountains  and  volcanoes.  The  trade  is  mainly  in  coffee, 
and  there  are  various  cigar  and  textile  factories.  Among 
the  manufactures  fine  cotton  goods,  muslin,  silver  articles, 
artificial  flowers,   and  high-class  embroidery  have  place : 


CENTRAL   AMERICA  451 

the  embroidery  being  a  specially  famous  product  of  women's 
work  in  the  city.     Wood-carving  is  a  native  industry. 

Access  is  gained  to  the  capital  by  railway  from  Puerto 
Barrios,  on  the  Atlantic,  200  miles  distant,  and  from  San 
Jose,  on  the  Pacific,  seventy-five  miles.  Guatemala  is  thus 
crossed  entirely  by  railway,  which  forms  a  transcontinental 
route  between  the  two  oceans.  The  railway  from  Guatemala 
city  to  the  city  of  Mexico  has  for  some  time  been  under 
construction,  and  now  affords  communication  betv/een  the 
two  capitals,  and  thus  with  New  York  and  North  America 
generally.  The  creating  of  railway  communication  across 
this  little-known  territory  between  Guatemala  and  Mexico 
is  of  much  interest,  and  will  doubtless  lead  to  increased 
trade  between  the  two  countries. 

The  building  of  the  present  city  of  Guatemala,  which  is 
the  third  capital  of  the  republic  (the  site  of  the  first  being 
known  as  Ciudad  Vieja),  was  commenced  in  1776,  three 
years  after  the  earthquake  of  1773,  which  devastated  Guate- 
mala la  Antigua,  or  Old  Guatemala,  the  second  capital. 
The  latter  is  situated  twenty  miles  from  the  present  capital, 
at  the  foot  of  the  volcano  of  Agua,  and  near  the  site  of  the 
earlier  city,  Ciudad  Vieja,  which  was  destroyed  by  a  volcanic 
discharge  from  Agua  in  1541,  when  a  great  flood  of  water 
was  ejected  from  a  crater  lake,  which  overwhelmed  the  city. 
Besides  the  capital  there  are  places  in  the  interior  which 
are  noted  for  their  historic  associations.  Such  is  Santa 
Cruz  de  Quiche, which  stands  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Utatlan. 
the  capture  of  which  in  1542  by  Alvarado  signalled  the  down- 
fall of  the  great  Quiche  nation  :  and  Totonicapan  and  Quezal- 
tenango,  places  which  have  survived  the  destructive  wars. 
The  former  is  a  thriving  centre  of  peaceful  industry, 
such  as  weaving,  pottery,  cabinet  work,  and  musical  instru- 
ments ;  the  latter,  "  the  Green  Feather  town,"  still  keeps 
alive  some  of  the  old  national  arts,  and  here  are  prepared 
the  gold-embroidered  cloaks,  masks,  and  plumed  headgear 
worn  by  the  natives  at  their  festive  gatherings,  which 
celebrate  their  ancient  grandeur. 

The  total  value  of  the  agricultural  productions  of  Guate- 
mala amount  to  somewhat  over  £5,000,000  annually. 


452  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

The  value  of  the  coffee  was  £1,117,000,  of  the  maize 
£806,000,  potatoes  £103,000,  sugar  £375,000,  rubber 
£57,000,  chewing-gum  and  cocoa  about  £14,000  each, 
barley  £156,000,  timber  £375,000,  bananas,  £75,000,  and 
so  forth.  Of  these  native  products  articles  to  the  value  of 
£2,000,000  were  exported  in  1909,  of  which  coffee  accounted 
for  £1,750,000,  hides  £62,000,  timber  £53,000,  rubber  £35,000, 
bananas  £46,000,  sugar  £24,000,  chicle  or  chewing-gum 
£14,000.  Other  tropical  products  of  interest  in  Guatemala, 
and  available  in  small  but  generally  growing  quantities  are 
alfalfa,  aniseed,  broom  root,  carria,  cocoa  butter,  tree  cotton 
or  kapok,  beneseed,  castor  oil,  ginger,  marjoram,  quinine 
bark,  tiger  skins,  and  myristina  wax,  and  other  varieties 
of  cotton  and  wax. 

The  rivers  of  Guatemala  are  of  some  importance,  as 
regards  the  eastern  side  of  the  country.  The  Motagua  is 
250  miles  long,  and  is  navigable  to  within  ninety  miles  of  the 
capital,  and  forms  a  delta  on  the  south  of  the  gulf  of 
Honduras,  an  arm  of  the  Atlantic;  and  the  Potochic,  180 
miles  long,  partly  navigable.  The  Usumasinta  is  a  noble 
stream  forming  part  of  the  boundary  with  Mexico,  and  falling 
into  the  gulf  of  Campeche  to  the  west  of  the  Yucatan 
peninsular.  The  western  slope  of  the  country  being  short, 
gives  rise  only  to  small  streams,  numerous  and  rapid.  Of 
the  various  lakes,  Peten,  about  twenty-seven  miles  long,  with 
the  island  of  Flores,  famous  for  the  number  of  ancient 
objects  of  archaeological  interest  which  have  been  recovered 
from  its  soil,  is  the  principal.  The  Golfo  Dulce  is  about 
thirty-six  miles  long,  a  freshwater  lake  communicating  with 
the  Atlantic,  and  this  would  be  of  value  as  a  harbour  but 
for  its  bar.  Lakes  Aitlan,  Amatitlan,  and  Guija  are  all  of 
considerable  size  and  interest. 

The  average  rainfall  of  Guatemala  is  heavy,  reaching, 
on  the  Atlantic  slope,  where  the  winds  are  moisture-charged 
from  the  Caribbean  sea,  195  inches  in  places,  but  in  the  centre 
of  the  country  it  is  about  twenty-seven  inches.  The  climate 
is  healthy  except  where  malarial  fevers  on  the  coast  prevail ; 
but  Guatemala,  and  Central  America  as  a  whole,  cannot  be 
the  subject  of  any  generalisation  as  to  climatic  conditions. 


454  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 

NICARAGUA 

Nicaragua  is,  territorially,  the  largest  of  the  Central 
American  republics,  and  second  in  point  of  population. 
On  the  Atlantic  side  the  coast  line  of  the  country  is  300 
miles  long,  and  on  the  Pacific  200  miles.  The  two  great 
lakes  upon  the  the  western  side  are  a  distinguishing  feature  of 
the  republic,  and  these  formed  part  of  the  projected  route 
of  the  once-discussed  Nicaragua  canal,  put  forward  as  an 
alternative  to  the  Panama  canal. 

The  principal  interior  towns  of  Nicaragua  are  Leon,  the 
old  capital,  Managua,  the  actual  capital,  and  Granada. 
These  three  towns  are  in  direct  communication  with  the 
Pacific  coast  by  a  line  of  railway  about  170  miles  in  length. 
Managua  has  a  population  of  some  45,000  people,  and  is 
the  most  important  commercial  place.  It  is  well  situated 
as  an  industrial  town,  and  geographically  is  the  centre  of 
the  republic.  Managua  is  connected  by  rail  with  Corinto  on 
the  Pacific  coast,  and  when  the  projected  railway  to  Mata- 
galpa,  and  that  connecting  the  lakes  with  the  Atlantic 
coast  are  completed,  it  will  be  brought  into  direct  communi- 
cation with  all  the  important  districts  in  the  republic.  The 
town  has  a  plentiful  water  supply  and  an  electric  light  instal- 
lation. The  department  of  Managua  is  small  ;  it  produces 
coffee  in  the  highlands,  or  Sierras,  and  sugar-cane  in  the 
lowlands,  chiefly  for  distilling  aguardiente. 

Leon,  with  a  population  of  about  63,000,  is  situated  in 
the  midst  of  some  of  the  finest  pastoral  and  agricultural 
land  of  the  republic,  and  forms  the  distributing  centre  for 
the  important  coffee,  sugar,  and  mining  districts  of  Mata- 
galpa,  Chichigalpa,  and  Chinandega.  Leon  probably  ranks 
second  in  importance  among  the  commercial  towns  of 
Nicaragua,  but,  like  Managua,  very  little  of  the  foreign  trade 
is  in  British  hands.  Granada,  the  chief  town  of  the  depart- 
ment of  the  same  name,  is  the  third  largest  city  of  the  republic. 
The  chmate  in  this  department,  although  tropical  in  the  lower 
parts,  is  cool  and  temperate  on  the  higher  levels.  The  to^vn  is 
situated  on  the  lake  of  Nicaragua,  some  thirty-six  miles  from 
Managua,  and  is  in  direct  communication  with  the  capital 


CENTRAL  AMERICA  455 

by  rail  and  road.  The  Granada  district  is  an  essentially 
agricultural  one  ;  coffee  is  produced  on  the  slopes  of  the 
extinct  volcano  Mombacho,  and  beans,  maize,  and  other 
crops.  The  department  of  Granada  possesses  the  San 
Rafael  sugar  plantations,  one  of  the  largest  of  its  kind  in 
the  republic,  and  at  Nandaime  there  is  a  large  cocoa  planta- 
tion, the  property  of  one  of  the  great  French  chocolate 
manufacturers.  The  population  of  the  town  of  Granada  is 
about  15,000. 

The  department  of  Chontales  comprises  important 
mining  and  pastoral  districts,  and  is  well  watered,  being 
intersected  by  numerous  small  rivers  v/hich  flow  down  from 
the  highlands  into  the  lake  of  Nicaragua.  The  ranges  of 
hills  in  the  centre  of  the  department  are  favourable  for  the 
production  of  coffee  and  cocoa,  but,  owing  to  want  of  com- 
munication, only  a  small  area  is  cultivated.  A  large  part 
of  the  district  is  utilised  for  cattle-raising,  and  a  business 
is  done  in  exporting  cattle  to  Costa  Rica.  The  region  is 
heivily  wooded,  but  up  to  the  present  the  timber  has  been 
but  little  exported.  The  department  of  Rivas  contains 
some  of  the  most  fertile  districts  of  the  country.  It  lies 
between  the  lake  of  Nicaragua  and  the  Pacific,  and  the 
chief  town,  Rivas,  has  a  population  of  about  10,000.  The 
principal  products  are  cocoa,  rubber,  tropical  fruits,  and 
fine  woods,  such  as  mahogany,  cedar,  and  hardwoods, 
which  are  shipped  in  considerable  quantities  from  the  port 
of  San  Juan  del  Sur.  Large  numbers  of  cattle  are  also 
raised  in  this  department  and  exported  to  Costa  Rica.  In 
other  districts  yellow  pine  is  abundant.  The  Prinzapolka 
district  comprises  the  upper  waters  of  the  Prinzapolka  river 
and  its  tributaries,  and  the  northern  tributaries  of  the  Rio 
Grande.  The  whole  district,  is  rich  in  mineral  wealth, 
and  there  are  several  weU-equipped  mines  producing  gold, 
and  many  smaller  ones,  but  all  are  handicapped  by  the 
difficulties  of  transport.  Besides  gold,  copper  and  other 
metals  are  found  in  paying  quantities.  The  highest  mountain 
ranges  of  the  country  form  the  northern  boundary  of  the 
department  of  Bluefields,  and  constitute  the  water-parting, 
dividing  the  northern  part  of  Nicaragua. 


456  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

In  general,  British  enterprise  has  not  been  much  attracted 
to  Nicaragua,  although  a  large  amount  of  foreign  capital  is 
invested  in  the  mines.  The  American  trade  has  increased 
rapidly  of  late. 

The  exports  from  Nicaragua  include  a  number  of  valuable 
articles,  very  diversified  in  character.  For  the  year  19 lo 
the  principal  of  these  articles  were  :  coffee,  12,000  tons,  at 
a  value  of  £576,200,  which  went  chiefly  to  France  and  Ger- 
many ;  cotton,  to  the  United  Kingdom  almost  entirely, 
sixty-three  tons,  value  £2,260  ;  hides  and  deer-skins,  value 
£50,000  ;  rubber,  285  tons,  value  £71,200,  almost  all  to 
the  United  States  ;  gold  recovered  in  various  forms,  whether 
amalgamated,  cyanided,  smelted,  or  in  bars,  to  a  value 
of  £183,000,  principally  to  the  United  States  ;  and  a  srr.all 
amount  of  silver  and  auriferous  copper  ;  cedar  to  a  value 
of  £2,400,  and  mahogany,  Brazil  wood,  and  lignum  vitae 
in  lesser  quantities  ;  also  dye-woods — mora  and  nambar — 
worth  £5,000  ;  sugar  £3,000  ;  bananas  £22,000,  to  the  United 
States ;  cocoanuts  and  turtle-shell,  of  which  last-named 
article  a  considerable  quantity  is,  during  some  years,  sent 
to  Great  Britain.  The  cotton,  cocoa,  rubber,  and  wood 
exports  are  far  from  representing  either  the  production  or 
the  possibilities  of  the  republic.  In  its  mahogany  and  cedar 
forests,  Nicaragua  possesses  great  wealth  ;  and  as  regards 
the  injury  done  to  the  rubber  forests  in  the  past,  steps  have 
been  taken  by  the  government  to  remedy  this. 

HONDURAS 

Honduras  lies  between  Guatemala  and  Nicaragua,  and 
has  a  coast  line  on  the  Caribbean  sea  more  than  300  miles 
long,  and  on  the  Pacific  a  short  seaboard  of  the  gulf  of  Fonseca, 
with  Amapala  as  the  seaport.  The  capital  of  the  republic 
is  Tegucigalpa,  with  a  population  of  about  40,000  ;  stand- 
ing at  an  elevation  of  3,200  feet  above  sea  level.  It  is 
connected  with  Comayaguela,  its  principal  suburb,  by  a 
lofty  bridge  of  ten  arches  over  the  torrential  Choluteca 
river.  The  houses  are  generally  of  one  storey,  built  round 
a  patio,  and  fronting  the  park  is  the  large  domed  and  ornate 
cathedral.    The  government  offices,  university,  law  courts. 


CENTRAL  AMERICA  457 

and  schools  of  industry  are  other  noteworthy  buildings. 
There  is  only  one  small  railway  line  in  the  country,  and  the 
roads  are  bad.  A  railway  is  greatly  needed  to  cross  the 
republic  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific,  and  from  the  capital 
to  Amapala. 

In  Honduras  fruit-growing  and  mining  are  both  important 
industries.  Of  the  export  trade  40  per  cent,  is  in  bananas, 
for  the  growing  of  which  there  are  vast  lands  available 
on  the  Atlantic  coast,  only  a  small  portion  of  which  is  culti- 
vated. The  Honduras  railway  earns  85  per  cent,  of  its 
revenue  from  fruit  transport,  and  the  steamers  on  the 
Ulua  river  are  entirely  occupied  with  the  business.  The 
great  Cuyamel  plantation,  an  American  enterprise,  is  an 
important  concern,  with  a  large  area  of  land,  and  a  modern 
colony,  railway,  docks,  and  other  equipment  devoted  to  the 
growing  and  export  of  bananas.  From  Puerto  Cortes,  on 
the  Atlantic  coast,  which  serves  the  region,  millions  of 
bunches  of  bananas  are  shipped  annually.  The  soil  on  this 
side  of  the  country  is  also  well  suited  for  sugar-cane,  but 
little  planting  has  been  done,  although  the  finest  kind  of 
cane  has  been  produced,  and  the  home  demand  calls  for 
greater  production.  Coffee  and  cocoa  are  equally  capable 
of  production,  and  lands  are  available  at  an  almost 
nominal  price.  Similar  conditions  exist  with  regard  to 
tobacco. 

The  chief  industry  in  Honduras  is  mining.  But  although 
the  mines  have  not  yet  been  developed  to  any  appreciable 
extent,  there  is  sufficient  proof  of  wealth  in  gold,  silver, 
and  iron.  Coal  and  oil  have  also  been  discovered  in  several 
parts  of  the  country,  but  have  not  been  developed.  A  New 
York  Mining  Company  is  the  only  enterprise  that  has  been 
seriously  worked,  and  this  has  yielded  some  £3,500,000, 
with  a  capital  of  some  £250,000.  Water  power  is  abundant 
in  all  parts  of  the  country.  The  placer  mines  of  the  depart- 
ment of  Olancho  are  also  important  and  have  yielded  good 
profits.  Honduras  has  been  almost  entirely  neglected  by 
foreign  mining  interests,  but  its  great  wealth  is  now  attract- 
ing some  attention  abroad.  Mines  are  worked  by  natives  in 
nearly  every  department  of  Honduras,  the  ore  being  so  rich 


458  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

as  to  afford  good  profits  even  when  worked  by  the  most 
primitive  methods. 

There  are  openings  for  investment  of  foreign  capital  in 
Honduras  in  the  mines,  agriculture,  and  public  works,  and 
the  government  are  anxious  to  attract  foreign  capital. 
There  are  immense  undeveloped  resources.  The  timber 
lands  are  valuable,  and  contain  pine,  oak,  cedar,  and  maho- 
gany ;  and  vegetable  oils  from  the  cohun  nut,  which  grows 
in  large  quantities  in  the  coast  lands,  should  be  valuable 
if  exploited  in  quantities.  The  Atlantic  coast  lands  are 
especially  fertile  and  the  Pacific  lands  produce  excellent 
rubber. 

The  usual  varied  exports  of  Central  American  countries 
are  represented  by  the  following  for  Honduras,  in  1911-12  : 
gold  and  silver  £200,000  ;  bananas  £268,000 ;  coffee 
£16,000  ;  cocoanuts  £35,000  ;  mahogany  £12,000  ;  which, 
with  other  matters,  and  a  few  manufactured  articles,  gave 
a  total  value  of  £630,000,  In  1909  the  foreign  debt  of 
Honduras  had  reached  nearly  £22,500,000,  of  which 
£17,000,000  represented  arrears  of  interest. 

BRITISH  HONDURAS 

The  British  Crown  colony  of  British  Honduras,  or  Belize, 
being  a  foreign  possession  is  outside  the  political  scope  of  this 
book,  but  territorially  forms  part  of  Latin  America.  Physi- 
cally it  differs  httle  from  the  Mexican  peninsula  of  Yucatan 
of  which  it  is  topographically  part,  and  its  flora  and  fauna  are 
those  of  the  neighbouring  republics.  The  littoral,  facing 
the  Carribean  sea,  is  low  and  swampy,  and  the  coast  is  of 
somewhat  dangerous  approach  from  coral  reefs  and  cayos. 
Inland  from  the  mangrove  swamps  and  tropical  jungle  are 
belts  of  rich  alluvial  soil,  pine-bearing  ridges  and  broad 
savannas,  with  mountains  beyond,  and  some  sixteen  streams 
or  rivers  descend  to  the  sea.  Good  pasture  land  up  to  3,300 
feet  above  sea  level  exists,  and  there  are  indications  of 
minerals.  The  cHmate  is  sub-tropical,  and  cannot  be 
considered  unhealthy  in  comparison  with  the  West  Indies 
and  Central  America  generally.  Larger  than  Wales,  the 
country  has  a  population  of  only  50,000  people,  of  which 


CENTRAL  AMERICA  459 

about  2,000  are  whites,  the  majority  being  of  hybrid  race 
descended  from  negro  slaves,  whites  and  aboriginals.  The 
population  increases  very  slowly,  and  45  per  cent,  of  the 
births  are  illegitimate.  The  land  was  at  one  time  more 
thickly  populated,  under  the  prehistoric  Indian  civiHsation 
which  has  left  ruined  cities  in  the  jungle,  as  elsewhere  in 
Central  America.  The  coloured  people  are  expert  woodmen. 
It  is  recorded  that  all  the  pine  trees  on  crown  lands 
were  sold  to  an  American  concessionnaire,  in  1903,  at  the 
price  of  one  cent  per  tree.  Agriculture  is  neglected,  only 
about  90  square  miles  of  land  being  under  cultivation.  Sugar 
cane,  bananas,  cocoanut  palms,  rubber,  palm  oil,  and  other 
valuable  matters  are  cultivated  or  collected,  and  could  be 
produced  in  large  quantities.  There  are  no  railways,  and  few 
roads.  The  capital,  Belize,  has  a  population  of  about  10,000 
people.  The  total  imports  are  of  a  value  of  about  £450,000, 
and  exports  £400,000.  The  Colony  is  administered  by  a 
lieutenant-governor  and  an  executive  council  of  three  official 
and  three  unofficial  members.  It  cannot  be  said  that  the 
development  of  this  territorial  unit  is  in  advance  of  that  of 
its  Spanish  American  neighbours. 

SALVADOR   AND   COSTA  RICA 

The  republic  of  Salvador  lies  wholly  upon  the  Pacific 
side  of  Central  America,  and  does  not,  like  its  neighbouring 
states,  enjoy  trans-continental  facilities.  A  narrow  sea- 
board of  alluvial  plains  gives  place  to  a  plateau  of  2,000 
feet  elevation,  crowned  by  a  number  of  volcanic  cones. 
The  river  Lempa  flows  through  a  magnificent  valley,  and  is 
navigable  for  small  steamers  for  the  third  of  its  length, 
and  falls  into  the  Pacific.  The  capital,  San  Salvador,  Hes 
in  a  region  subject  to  earthquakes,  and  the  treacherous 
San  Miguel,  one  of  the  most  destructive  burning  mountains 
in  America,  after  periods  of  repose  at  times  bursts  forth 
and  causes  devastation  around  it  ;  and  the  phenomenon 
of  unrest  is  shared  by  the  lake  of  Itopango,  which  rises 
suddenly  in  its  steep,  trough-like  bed  ;  in  which  in  1880  a 
volcanic  cone  appeared,  500  feet  in  diameter.  San  Salvador, 
lies  at  an   elevation  of    2,100  feet,    in    the   valley    of  Las 


46o  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH  AMERICA 

Hamacas,  thirty  miles  from  the  Pacific  coast,  and  has  a 
population  of  about  65,000  people.  It  is  connected  with 
the  Pacific  ports  of  La  Libertad  and  Acajutla  by  railway, 
and  with  Santa  Anna  to  the  north-west.  A  handsome 
university  and  others  of  the  customary  Latin  American 
institutions  mark  out  the  city  for  distinction,  and  it  may 
favourably  be  compared  as  a  centre  of  Hfe  with  small  cities 
of  Europe. 

The  principal  industry  of  Salvador  is  agriculture  ;  and 
coffee,  sugar,  indigo  and  balsam  are  the  most  important 
products.  The  "  Peruvian  balsam  "  is  not  cultivated  in 
Peru,  but  is  an  indigenous  balm  of  Salvador,  and  was  so 
named  from  being  first  shipped  to  Callao  and  thence  to 
Europe  in  earher  times.  Rubber,  tobacco,  rice,  cereals, 
and  fruit  are  other  products.  Cotton-growing  is  encouraged 
by  the  government,  which  has  estabhshed  a  model  farm. 
Mining  is  principally  for  gold,  whose  output  has  reached 
during  past  years  a  value  of  £250,000  ;  and  silver,  copper, 
quicksilver,  and  lead  are  found,  also  iron.  The  Salvador 
Railway  Company,  controlled  by  British  interests,  with  a 
government  subsidy,  together  with  its  steamers,  is  actively 
engaged  in  the  development  of  the  regions  traversed  by 
the  line.  The  peasantry  of  Salvador  are  generally  hard- 
working, and  the  general  prosperity  of  the  country  is 
advancing. 

Among  the  Central  American  states,  it  may  be  said 
that  Costa  Rica  has  the  least  sombre  past.*  The  republic 
is  fourth  in  area  and  population,  but  undoubtedly  a 
larger  proportion  of  the  country  is  capable  of  immediate 
utilisation,  and  the  population,  Galician  by  origin,  is  the 
most  European  and  the  most  industrious  and  prosperous 
in  Central  America.  The  republic  is  bounded  on  the  north- 
west by  Nicaragua,  from  which  it  is  partly  separated  by  the 
river  San  Juan,  on  the  north-east  by  the  Caribbean  sea,  on 
the  south-east  by  Panama,  and  on  the  south  and  west  by  the 
Pacific  ocean.  The  Pacific  coast  is  indented  by  the  two 
large  gulfs  of  Nicoya  and  Dulce,  in  the  former  of  which  the 
pearl-fishing  industry  is  carried  on. 

•  "  Industria." 


CENTRAL  AMERICA  461 

The  country,  which  is  separated  by  a  narrow  strip  of 
land  from  lake  Nicaragua,  is  traversed  from  south-east  to 
north-west  by  the  Sierra  Talamanca  and  its  continuation, 
which  near  Cartago  is  indented  by  the  depression  known 
as  Col  d'Ochomopo,  from  which  two  streams  flow  in  opposite 
directions  to  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  oceans— mountains 
which  attain  elevations  of  10,000  to  11,000  feet,  with  a 
number  of  volcanoes,  active  and  dormant.  Irazu,  the 
volcano  of  Cartago,  the  loftiest,  11,200  feet,  whose  summit 
commands  a  view  of  both  Atlantic  and  Pacific  oceans,  is 
freely  active,  and  it  has  given  rise  to  several  seismic  dis- 
turbances. Along  the  coast  of  the  Pacific,  especially 
round  the  bay  of  Nicoya,  the  country  has  a  beautiful  and 
picturesque  appearance,  being  diversified  by  valleys  and 
intersected  by  numerous  streams.  The  gulf  of  Nicoya  is 
a  land-locked  inlet  containing  an  archipelago  of  richly 
wooded  islands,  and  it  takes  its  name  from  an  Indian  chief 
who,  with  his  tribe,  was  converted  to  Christianity  in  the 
sixteenth  century.  Its  pearls  and  mother-of-pearls  and 
purple-yielding  murex  have  made  it  famous. 

The  two  ports  of  entry  to  the  republic  are  Puntarenas  on 
the  gulf  of  Nicoya — the  Pacific — and  Port  Limon  on  the 
Caribbean  sea,  the  latter  being  connected  by  rail  with  San 
Jose  and  Alajeula,  a  distance  of  117  miles,  forming  a 
transcontinental  line. 

Costa  Rica  was  so  named  by  the  early  Spanish  settlers 
on  account  of  its  immense  natural  wealth,  and  it  contains, 
in  addition  to  its  virgin  forests,  broad  savannas  and  valuable 
vegetable  and  fruit  products,  mineral  deposits  of  great 
value.  Many  gold  mines  were  worked  by  the  early  Span- 
iards, and  recently  some  activity  has  been  shown  in  exploit- 
ing this  branch  of  industry,  warranted  by  the  richness  of 
the  mineral  deposits  in  the  extensive  mining  zones  of  the 
republic.  The  native  Indians  worked,  in  a  crude  way, 
the  silver,  gold,  and  copper  mines  of  the  land  in  olden 
times. 

In  all  parts  of  the  republic,  with  the  exception  of  the 
sea  coast,  the  climate  is  mild  and  temperate,  never  subject 
to  excessive  heat  or  cold,  and  rarely  experiencing  any  other 


462  CENTRAL   AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

vicissitude  than  that  from  dry  to  rainy  season.  At  San 
Jose,  at  an  elevation  of  3,700  feet,  there  is  a  perfect  spring 
with  a  mean  annual  temperature  of  68°  ;  the  rainfall 
is  in  places  very  abundant,  and  more  so  on  the  Atlantic 
than  on  the  Pacific  side,  ranging  as  high  as  140  inches  at 
Port  Limon.  The  land,  therefore,  is  well  adapted  to  agri- 
cultural purposes,  and  capable  of  bringing  to  maturity 
many  European  plants,  as  well  as  those  pecuhar  to  the 
tropics.  Heavy  and  luxuriant  forest  covers  a  large  part 
of  the  country,  extending  far  up  the  mountain  slopes,  and 
includes  mahogany,  ebony,  indiarubber,  Brazil  wood, 
native  cedar,  oak,  and  myrtle.  This  growth  of  tropical 
forests  has  covered  the  land  for  ages,  and  in  consequence 
the  rock  has  been  overlaid  with  a  very  thick  vegetable 
mould,  and  the  soil  is,  therefore,  remarkably  fertile, 
especially  in  the  valleys  between  the  mountains,  where 
two  harvests  a  year  are  commonly  reaped.  Sugar-cane, 
maize,  beans,  cocoa,  rice,  tobacco,  rubber,  spices  are  among 
the  principal  products  ;  with  great  quantities  of  hard  woods 
and  dye  woods  for  export,  on  both  coasts.  Rubber  export 
fell  off,  due  to  the  over-exploitation  of  the  trees,  but  new 
plantations  have  been  made.  The  cocoa  is  of  excellent 
quality  and  its  cultivation  is  increasing.  The  excellent 
quality  of  the  Costa  Rica  coffee  is  well  known  ;  it  commands 
a  high  price  abroad,  and  more  plantations  are  being  estab- 
lished. Banana  cultivation  is  exceedingly  important,  and 
heavy  exports  of  the  fruit  are  made,  amounting  to  more 
than  10,000.000  bunches  annually,  taking  a  leading  place 
in  the  country's  foreign  trade.  The  soil  in  certain  districts 
is  peculiarly  suited  to  the  banana,  and  large  areas  remain 
to  be  planted,  such  as  are  capable  of  furnishing  continuous 
supplies  of  this  valuable  source  of  food.  The  great  banana 
trade  of  Costa  Rica  has  grown  to  being  entirely  since  the 
year  1880, 

The  capital  of  Costa  Rica,  San  Jose,  with  a  population 
of  about  27,000,  stands  in  the  central  plateau,  3,870  feet 
above  sea  level.  It  is  of  modern  appearance,  with  good 
streets  electrically  Mghted,  although  the  houses  are  of  one 
storey  in  order  to  lessen  danger  from  earthquakes.     The 


CENTRAL  AMERICA  463 

suburbs  consist  in  the  cane  huts  of  the  Indians.  There 
are  two  large  pubhc  parks  ;  and  the  cathedral,  government 
offices,  schools,  museum,  hbrary,  and  barracks  are  among 
the  principal  buildings. 

The  valuable  resources  of  Costa  Rica,  its  comparative 
immunity  from  revolution,  earher  attracted  considerable 
capital  from  abroad,  principally  from  Great  Britain  and  the 
United  States,  which  served  for  interior  development ;  but 
later,  large  arrears  on  the  foreign  debt  came  to  being, 
followed  by  bankruptcy.  The  poUtical  stability  of  the 
country,  however,  is  noteworthy,  and  is  due  in  great  part 
to  the  existence  of  a  large  class  of  peasant  proprietors, 
including  more  than  two-thirds  of  the  population  :  a  con- 
dition of  comparatively  rare  occurrence  in  Latin  America. 
Education  is  free  and  compulsory  as  regards  primary 
instruction  :  complete  religious  liberty  is  guaranteed  by 
the  constitution,  and  military  service  is  compulsory  in 
time  of  war, 

PANAMA 

The  small  republic  of  Panama  has  built  considerable 
hopes  for  its  future  upon  the  Panama  canal  ;  dreaming 
that  its  at  present  small  cities  will  be  transformed  into  great 
emporia  of  wealth  by  reason  of  the  traffic  passing  through 
its  territory,  and  the  presence  of  ships  of  all  nations  in 
transit  upon  its  coasts.  Whether  these  hopes  will  be 
realised  only  the  future  can  shew,  but  practical  consider- 
ation will  give  rise  to  doubt  as  to  whether  any  very  rapid 
change  of  fortune  can  take  place.  The  considerable  floating 
population  which  the  building  of  the  canal  required  must 
disperse  as  the  work  is  completed,  and  the  loss  of  the  harvest 
of  money  which  the  pay  of  the  workers  brought  must  react 
upon  local  industries  and  trade.  The  city  of  Panama  is 
not  upon  the  direct  route  of  the  canal,  and  whilst  predictions 
of  a  rapid  growth  of  its  population  have  been  made  it  is 
reasonable  to  suppose  that  the  town  of  Balboa,  the  Pacific 
terminus  of  the  waterway,  is  more  likely  to  expand.  Con- 
siderable progress  has  been  made  in  the  nine  j^ears  of 
independent  life  of  the  republic,  since  the  separation  from 


464  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

Colombia,  and  it  is  doubtless  in  a  slow,  steady  growth  that 
the  young  republic  will  find  its  greatest  advantage.  The 
influence  of  the  United  States  in  recent  presidential  elections 
has  been  of  much  benefit ;  the  turbulent  or  corrupt  elements 
of  political  partisanship  having  been  shewn  that  the  ballot 
must  be  respected. 

The  natural  resources  of  Panama  are  considerable,  but 
there  is  a  tendency  to  exaggerate  them.  Those  parts  of 
the  territory  which  are  best  known  are  capable  of  yielding 
useful  tropical  products,  such  as  rubber,  ivory,  nuts,  hard- 
wood. Cocoanuts,  sugar-cane,  tobacco,  and  other  products 
can  be  cultivated  throughout  large  areas  of  country  ;  and 
cattle-breeding  offers  some  possibilities.  The  cultivation 
of  cocoanuts  in  Panama,  as  in  most  of  the  Central  American 
republics,  may  be  expected  to  increase  considerably  in 
the  future,  as  is  the  case  with  rubber  ;  and  new  plantations 
are  being  made.  An  American  company  has  recently  laid 
out  32,000  acres  of  bananas  and  1,000  of  cacao,  and  else- 
where 150,000  rubber-trees  have  been  planted,  success 
being  attained  in  the  lands  away  from  the  hurricane  belt. 
At  present,  however,  nearly  all  the  rubber  exported  is  from 
wild  trees.  Of  cocoanut  palms  7,000  have  been  planted. 
For  the  year  1911  bananas  to  the  value  of  £215,000  were 
exported ;  cocoanuts  ;£2,5oo  ;  turtle-shell  £2,500,  also  choco- 
late, live  turtles,  hides,  sarsaparilla ;  and  in  1910  exports 
included  :  gold  £27,000,  hides  £17,000,  ivory  nuts  £26,000, 
mother-of-pearl  shell  £15,000,  rubber  £32,000  :  which  serve 
to  shew  the  variety  of  products. 

The  Panama  canal  works  embodied  first,  the  formation 
of  a  sheltered  basin  in  Limon  bay  on  the  Atlantic  coast  of 
the  Isthmus,  by  means  of  a  breakwater  from  the  fortified 
Toro  point,  and  the  dredging  of  a  channel,  affording  a  depth 
of  forty  feet  of  water  from  the  sea  through  the  low,  swampy 
ground  as  far  as  Gatun.  At  Gatun  are  the  eastern  locks, 
a  double  flight  of  three  locks,  and  abutting  on  their  walls 
to  the  west  is  the  immense  earthern  dam  which  closes  the 
lower  valley  of  the  Chagres  river.  Through  the  centre  of 
the  dam  runs  a  concrete-lined  spillway,  and  the  waters  of 
the  artificial  lake  Gatun  thus  impounded  extend  far  back, 


CENTRAL  AMERICA  465 

flooding  the  low-lying  country  behind  and  covering  an  area 
of  164  square  miles — a  lake  whose  surface  is  eighty-seven  feet 
above  the  height  of  mean  tide.  The  vessels  rise  through  the 
three  locks,  eighty-seven  feet,  to  float  upon  the  surface  of 
the  lake,  across  which  they  proceed  under  their  own  steam 
for  twenty-two  miles,  at  a  fair  rate  of  speed,  to  Gamboa. 
From  this  point  a  great  artificial  canyon,  the  famous  Culebra 
cut,  one  of  the  greatest  cuttings  of  earthwork  ever  attempted 
in  the  history  of  engineering,  encloses  the  canal  for  eight 
miles  to  Pedro  Miguel,  where  a  single-flight  lock,  in  dupli- 
cate, lowers  the  vessel  to  the  surface  of  another  artificial 
lake,  that  of  Miraflores,  a  mile  and  a  half  long.  At  the  termi- 
nation of  this  lake  a  double  flight  of  twin  locks  again  lowers 
the  vessel  to  the  level  of  the  Pacific  ocean,  to  a  waterway 
formed  for  eight  miles  through  low  swamps  to  deep  water 
in  the  Pacific,  at  the  new  port  of  Balboa — so  named  after 
the  famous  discoverer — situated  slightly  to  the  west  of 
the  city  of  Panama.  Here  the  Naos  islands  dyke  protects 
the  terminus  of  the  canal  from  silting  currents,  and  connects 
the  mainland  with  the  fortified  islands.  The  entire  length 
of  the  canal  from  deep  water  in  the  Atlantic  to  deep  water 
in  the  Pacific  is  fifty  miles.  The  bottom  of  the  Culebra  cut 
is  forty  feet  above  mean  tide,  and  the  surface  of  the  water, 
eighty-seven  feet,  giving  a  maximum  depth  of  forty-seven 
feet  of  fresh  water  in  the  canal  and  a  minimum  of  forty-one 
feet,  according  to  the  wet  or  dry  season  affecting  the  level 
of  the  lake.  The  available  length  of  the  locks  is  1,000  feet ; 
their  width  no  feet. 

The  shortening  of  routes  by  the  canal  are,  for  Vancouver 
and  other  ports  north  of  Panama  on  the  west  coast  of 
America  8,400  miles  to  New  York,  7,000  miles  to  Montreal, 
and  6,000  to  Liverpool,  Antwerp,  and  Hamburg.  For  ports 
on  the  west  coast,  south  of  Panama,  the  distance  varies  from 
8,400  miles  to  zero,  near  the  southern  extremity  of  the 
continent,  the  average  reduction  being  about  5,000  to  New 
York  and  2,600  to  Liverpool.  From  Yokohama  to  New 
York  the  reduction  is  3,700  miles,  and  from  Shanghai 
1,000,  The  distance  from  Hong  Kong  and  Manila  remains 
practically  unreduced  from  the  Suez  route.     From  Sydney 

GG 


466  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

to  New  York  the  reduction  is  3,800,  and  2,500  to  Montreal, 
and  from  Melbourne  to  New  York  2,600.  Thus  Yokohama, 
Sydney,  and  Melbourne  via  the  canal,  are  nearer  New  York 
than  Liverpool.  For  the  first  time  the  circumnavigation 
of  the  globe  north  of  the  equator  will  be  possible. 
East  of  Australia  runs  an  imaginary  north  and  south 
line,  on  which  all  points  are  at  an  equal  distance  from 
New  York  via  Suez  or  via  Panama.  The  British  West 
Indies  will  no  longer  be  at  the  end  of  a  cul-de-sac,  but  on 
a  great  highway  of  commerce,  with  Jamaica  in  a  position 
of  strategic  importance,  and  Trinidad  on  a  line  of  com- 
munication from  the  Pacific  countries  of  America  to  Brazil 
and  Argentina. 

The  canal  is  owned  and  operated  by  the  government  of 
the  United  States,  and  will  be  fortified  and  garrisoned 
thereby  :  and  the  foreign  relations  of  the  Panama  republic 
are  controlled  by  the  same  power.  The  history  of  the 
canal  is  a  chequered  one,  and  whether  from  the  engineering 
and  the  financing,  whether  from  the  diplomatic  point  of  view, 
has  been  sullied  by  doubtful  methods  in  certain  respects. 
The  extravagances  and  corruption  of  the  Lesseps'  engineers 
and  financiers,  the  machinations  of  the  United  States 
directed  against  Colombia  in  the  establishment  of  the 
Panama  republic,  and  the  proposed  violation  of  the  Hay- 
Pauncefote  treaty  by  the  United  States,  in  the  matter  of 
canal  dues,  are  among  the  incidents  of  the  history  of  the 
great  work.  On  the  other  hand,  the  work  of  actual  con- 
struction and  the  labours  of  medical  science  upon  the  canal 
zone  have  aroused  general  admiration,  and  have  reflected 
great  credit  upon  the  American  engineers  and  adminis- 
trators. From  one  of  the  most  terrible  fever  spots  in  the 
world,  the  death  rate  of  the  canal  zone  was  reduced,  in 
1912,  to  eleven  per  thousand,  among  the  part  of  the 
population  immediately  under  American  control. 

The  building  of  the  canal  by  the  United  States  arose 
largely  out  of  necessity,  in  the  naval  economy  of  that 
country  ;  due  in  a  measure  to  the  Spanish-American  war  ; 
and  was  accentuated  by  the  voyage  of  the  Oregon  from 
San   Francisco,   via  the  straits   of    Magellan,   to  join  the 


CENTRAL  AMERICA  467 

American  fleet  off  Cuba — a  voyage  which  was  a  noteworthy 
incident  in  naval  annals.  The  American  people  suddenly 
became  aware  of  the  vital  necessity  for  a  waterway  between 
their  Atlantic  and  Pacific  coasts.  The  New  Panama  Canal 
Company,  the  successors  of  the  de  Lesseps  Company,  unable 
to  raise  sufficient  capital  for  the  completion  of  their  enter- 
prise, were  wilhng  to  sell  out ;  and  the  American  offer  of 
£8,000,000  for  the  rights  and  property  of  the  French  was 
accepted.  Negotiations  were  then  entered  into  with  the 
republic  of  Colombia  for  an  extension  of  time  for  the  work, 
and  for  territorial  rights  over  the  canal  zone,  and  after 
long  delay  a  treaty  was  signed  by  representatives  of  both 
countries,  but  was  refused  ratification  by  the  senate  of 
Colombia,  who  threw  it  out  in  October,  1903.  Within  three 
weeks,  the  municipal  council  of  the  city  of  Panama  pro- 
claimed the  Independence  of  the  Province  as  an  independent 
republic.  American  warships  gathered  to  prevent  the 
landing  of  Colombian  or  other  hostile  forces  ;  the  United 
States  recognised  the  new  republic  ;  and  the  Panama  Canal 
convention  was  signed,  all  in  that  brief  period.  The  pro-, 
ceedings  gave  rise  to  world-wide  discussion.  The  Colombian 
senate  were  within  their  rights  in  refusing  to  ratify  the 
treaty ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  Panama  being  very  remote, 
by  reason  of  lack  of  means  of  communication,  from  Bogota, 
and  the  people  of  Panama  wroth  at  what  they  regarded 
their  loss  by  the  throwing  out  of  the  treaty  by  their  own 
national  government,  secession  was  easy. 

As  regards  its  financial  side,  the  total  cost  of  the  canal 
was  finally  estimated  at  £75,000,000  ;  the  interest  upon 
which,  and  the  annual  cost  of  operation  constitute,  it  is 
estimated,  a  charge  of  £600,000  per  annum.  It  has  been 
stated,  as  an  example,  that  the  profits  on  the  Suez  canal  are 
so  cons-iderable  that  the  British  government  alone,  by 
virtue  of  its  shares,  receives  upwards  of  £1,000,000  per 
annum  in  dividends  :  and  the  fixing  of  the  Panama  rates 
will  be  a  subject  for  judicious  commercial  calculation,  if 
efficient  competition  is  to  be  maintained. 

As  regards  the  construction  of  the  canal,  considerable 
difficulties  due  to  rock  flow  have  occurred,  shewing  some 
geological  instabihty  of  the  district. 


468  CENTRAL   AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

The  twelve  Latin-American  countries  which  front  upon 
the  Pacific  are  hkely  to  receive  considerable  stimulus  from 
the  canal,  due  to  the  greater  facilities  for  trade  with  the 
Atlantic  coast  of  the  United  States  and  Europe.  From  the 
northern  frontier  of  Mexico,  to  the  straits  of  Magellan,  the 
8,000  miles  of  coast  contain  a  resourceful  and  valuable 
territory,  which  has  been  much  isolated  from  the  activities 
of  which  the  Atlantic  ocean  is  the  theatre,  due  to  the  long 
journey  round  South  America.  At  the  present  time  the 
twelve  countries  upon  the  Latin-American  Pacific  coast, 
conduct  a  foreign  trade  of  the  annual  value  of  £100,000,000, 
which  is  an  increase  of  100  per  cent,  in  ten  years.  In 
foreshadowing  the  increase  of  this  trade  it  must  not  be 
forgotten  that  vast  portions  of  the  8,000  miles  of  coast  are 
arid,  in  Mexico,  Peru,  and  Chile,  and  cut  off  from  the  interior 
by  the  vast  range  of  the  Andes  in  South  America,  and  that 
the  natural  slope  and  outlet  for  South  American  products  is 
towards  the  Atlantic.  The  theme  of  enthusiastic  writers, 
who  hold  that  the  commercial  axis  of  the  world  will  be 
shifted  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific,  by  reason  of  the 
Panama  canal,  may  or  may  not  be  verified.  This  crowning 
piece  of  engineering  work  and  human  activity  in  Latin 
America  will  have  its  special  function  and  value,  but 
cannot  bring  about  any  profound  changes  in  world 
politics  or  commerce.  As  earlier  remarked,  the  tendency 
of  the  world  is  likely  to  be  towards  increased  home  pro- 
duction and  consumption,  and  economic  stability,  rather 
than  towards  a  vastly  extended  commerce  and  carrying 
trade,  although  doubtless  this  will  increase  to  some  degree. 

The  Central  American  republics,  with  small  exception, 
have  been  notorious  throughout  their  history  for  constant 
revolutionary  outbreaks,  and  the  easy  repudiation  of,  or 
failure  to  pay  their  foreign  debts.  The  land  has  been 
drenched  with  the  blood  of  its  unfortunate  inhabitants. 
Never  perhaps,  in  the  history  of  Christianity  have  people  of 
the  same  race  and  family  so  slaughtered  each  other  in 
partisan  strife  as  the  people  of  these  distressed  states.  Over 
and  over  again  the  inhabitants  have  been  impoverished 
and  debased,   the  land  laid  waste,   the  male  population 


CENTRAL   AMERICA  469 

sacrificed  in  civil  war.  The  rulers  who  governed,  mis- 
governed, or  exploited  Central  America  in  Spanish  times 
• — often  Uttle  more  than  rascals  and  murderers — were 
succeeded  after  Independence  was  gained  by  revolutionary 
generals  and  dictators,  whose  rivalries  were  the  cause  of  the 
fratricidal  struggles  that  have  continued,  in  some  cases, 
up  to  the  present  day.  Revolutions,  and  war  with  the 
neighbouring  states,  have  stunted  the  economic  growth 
of  these  communities,  and  rendered  futile  the  attempts 
of  weU-meaning  administrators  for  social  or  political  better- 
ment. Enormous  debts  entered  into  by  irresponsible  and 
dishonest  governments  have  mortgaged  the  future  of  the 
people,  or  have  been  followed  by  repudiation.  The  foreign 
debt  of  some  of  the  republics  is  extremely  heavy.  No 
interest  has  been  paid,  and  in  some  cases  the  countries  are 
bankrupt.  Yet  on  the  other  hand  the  Central  American 
republics  contain  elements,  both  in  their  soil  and  their 
people,  which  under  more  stable  political  conditions  might 
convert  the  Isthmian  regions  into  important  centres  of 
population  and  production.  The  ultimate  future  of  lands 
so  favourably  situated  and  naturally  endowed  cannot  fail 
to  be  of  importance.  The  lands  are  of  rich  and  varied 
resources,  and  the  population  tends  rapidly  to  increase ; 
and  with  the  advance  of  education  and  good  government, 
this  part  of  Latin  America  might  be  expected  more  fully 
to  enjoy  the  valuable  inheritance,  which  its  geographical 
and  climatic  conditions  afford. 


470  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 


CHAPTER    XV 

FOREIGN   RELATIONS,   COLONISATION, 
AND   COMMERCE 

From  the  European  point  of  view  the  foremost  economic 
possibihties  of  the  Latin  American  countries  are  the  capacity 
for  receiving  immigrants,  and  of  trade  expansion  and  re- 
munerative investment  of  capital.  As  regards  immigration, 
this  is  specially  of  interest  to  the  Spaniard,  Italian,  and 
Portuguese  peoples,  who  are  immediately  at  home  in  Latin 
America.  The  various  governments  of  those  republics  are 
generally  fully  alive  to  the  desirability  of  peopling  the  un- 
occupied and  at  present  desolate  territories  under  their  con- 
trol, and  schemes  for  securing  their  share  of  the  overflowing 
population  of  Europe  fill  an  important  place  in  their  national 
policies  in  many  cases. 

The  movement  of  population  from  Europe  before  the 
war  was  a  marked  phenomenon.  How  the  current  of 
emigrating  humanity  will  develop  remains  to  be  seen. 
Certain  factors  have  arisen  to  prevent  the  outflow:  the 
growth  of  the  neo-Malthusian  doctrine,  or  curtailment  of 
the  large  family;  the  tendency  towards  a  more  equitable 
distribution  of  land  and  national  resources  and  a  more 
intensive  science  of  domestic  development  are  matters 
which,  in  the  near  future,  may  affect  the  emigration  of  the 
British  and  European  people;  which,  whilst  it  possesses 
valuable  elements,  is  not  without  some  stigma  of  reproach 
to  the  homelands ;  and  the  economic  effects  of  the  war. 

In  France  the  shrinkage  of  the  population  has  become  a 
commonplace,  and  maternity  is  now  subsidised  by  the  state. 
In  Germany  the  same  element  has  recently  been  shewn  to 
be  at  work,  to  the  chagrin  of  those  who  built  their  strength 


FOREIGN  RELATIONS  AND  COMMERCE      471 

and  civilisation  on  the  force  of  numbers.  In  England 
official  returns  generally  record  the  birth-rate  at  its  lowest. 
As  for  the  United  States,  it  is  well  known  that  the  growth 
of  the  population  and  its  capacity  for  industrial  output 
depends  largely  upon  immigrant  labour,  rather  than  upon 
the  vegetative  increase  of  the  American  family.  These 
conditions  in  all  countries  are  traceable  to  the  growth  of 
luxury  on  the  one  hand,  and  to  the  too  severe  struggle 
for  life  on  the  other,  and  must  in  a  measure  be  regarded  as  a 
castigation,  suffered  by  all  these  nations  for  their  failure  to 
bring  about  a  more  equitable  distribution  of  the  fruits  of 
the  earth  by  which  men  live,  which  are  under  their  control. 
Thus  it  is  that  the  growth  of  population  in  the  emigrating 
countries,  unless  some  change  occur,  is  likely  to  be  less 
prolific,  and  a  diminution  of  emigration  would  naturally 
follow.  As  regards  the  United  States,  wholesale  prohibi- 
tion of  immigration  has  recently  been  entered  upon. 

The  second  cause,  that  of  an  awakening  on  the  part  of 
European  nations  to  the  better  treatment  of  its  workers, 
the  breakdown  of  monopoly  in  land,  and  the  raising  of  wages, 
which  shew  signs  of  being  brought  about,  may  tend  towards 
keeping  at  home  those  classes  who  formerly  emigrated. 
This  national  awakening  is  more  apparent  in  Britain  than 
elsewhere,  and  a  slow  but  sure  revolution  is  being  wrought, 
on  the  part  of  labour  and  the  non-property  owning  classes, 
which  is  likely,  if  directed,  to  advance  British  civilisation 
more  than  anything  in  the  past.  In  Spain,  Italy,  and  other 
European  lands  the  growth  of  this  new  spirit  is  much  slower. 
If  from  Britain  hundreds  of  thousands  of  Englishmen  and 
Scotsmen  with  their  families  have  emigrated,  the  outward 
flow  from  the  Latin  countries  has  been  equally  marked. 
Spain  and  Italy  especially  have  driven  their  people  over- 
seas by  their  iniquitous  land  system  at  home.  The  great 
bulk  of  emigrants,  at  least  from  Britain,  are  from  the  classes 
of  land-working  capacity,  classes  which  the  country  can 
least  spare ;  and  it  is  probable  that  a  freer  access  to  the  land 
will,  in  time,  have  the  effect  of  retaining  this  valuable  ele- 
ment. Canada  and  Australia,  which  are  serving  as  an 
effective  drain  to  this  class,  might  be  advised  in  their  own 


472  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 

interests,  even  apart  from  "  Imperial  "  interests,  to  study 
whereby  they  might  profit  by  the  surplus  urban  element 
of  Britain. 

If  a  permanent  curtailment  of  European  emigration  by 
reason  of  these  causes  were  brought  about,  the  growth  of 
the  Spanish  American  countries  would  naturally  be  retarded, 
for  the  vegetative  increase  in  population  in  these  lands, 
with  the  exception  of  Central  America,  is  generally  very 
small ;  and  it  is  not  likely  to  increase  much  until  a  better 
spirit  of  humane  organisation  is  spread  abroad.  The  Latin 
American  race  is  really  a  prolific  one,  and  the  neo-Mal- 
thusian  habit  does  not  as  yet  flourish  under  the  regimen  of 
Roman  Catholicism  ;  but  the  conditions  of  life  of  the  working 
population  and  the  Indians,  in  Latin  America,  are  too  miser- 
able to  ensure  a  lowering  of  the  high  rate  of  mortality  among 
infants. 

The  obtaining  of  immigrant  labour  for  existing  industries 
and  for  land  settlement,  is  one  of  the  most  important  prob- 
lems in  South  America  at  the  present  time,  and  keen  com- 
petition between  several  of  the  principal  states  has  resulted 
in  inducements  to  immigrants.  Both  Argentina  and  Brazil 
maintain  immigration  services,  with  active  agents  in 
Europe,  Emigrants  arriving  in  Argentina  are  provided 
with  lodging,  food,  and  medical  attendance  free  of  charge 
for  five  days.  Considerable  facilities  are  afforded  in  the 
obtaining  of  employment  ;  free  fares  are  granted  by  rail 
or  steamer  into  the  interior.  Agricultural  colonies  and  town 
sites  are  systematically  laid  out  by  the  government  in  the 
more  distant  provinces,  and  land  and  lots  offered  the 
immigrant  on  certain  conditions,  generally  those  concerning 
fencing  and  development.  In  the  new  town  areas  fifty 
square  yards  of  land  are  granted,  in  the  suburbs  small 
farm-sites  of  thirty-seven  acres,  and  farther  out  on  the  pampa 
holdings  of  250  acres  may  be  obtained.  The  payment  of 
one  dollar  per  acre,  paper  money,  in  six  annual  instalments, 
the  building  of  a  house,  and  the  cultivation  of  one-fifth  of  the 
area  within  two  years  are  the  terms  required  for  occupation 
of  these  lands.  For  the  experienced  rancher  with  capital, 
land  suitable  for  cattle  ranches  up  to  6,000  acres  nia.y  be 


FOREIGN   RELATIONS  AND  COMMERCE       473 

purchased  on  the  instalment  plan.  The  Argentine  govern- 
ment has  at  disposal  more  than  30,000  square  leagues  of 
land,  for  sale  to  the  highest  bidder,  in  lots  of  6,000  acres, 
for  cattle  ranching.  There  are,  however,  other  conditions 
in  connection  with  land  tenure  in  Argentina  which  are  less 
favourable.  Whilst  it  would  appear  that  land  is  easily 
obtainable  in  some  regions,  it  is  the  case  also  that  the  enor- 
mous estates  and  holdings  along  the  lines  of  railway  and  near 
the  seaports  form  an  obstacle  to  the  rapid  peopling  of  the 
country.  The  result  of  this  is  shewn  to  some  extent  by  the 
fact  that  nearly  half  the  people  who  enter  the  country  from 
Europe  yearly,  as  labourers  and  harvesters,  leave  it  again 
after  earnmg  their  season's  wages.  They  cannot  easily 
obtain  suitable  small  holdings,  and  until  this  species  of  land 
monopoly  is  modified,  and  other  improvements  made  in  the 
matter  of  land  purchase  and  settlement,  this  element  of 
population  will  largely  be  lost  to  Argentina. 

Brazil  of  recent  years  has  adopted  a  policy  of  colonisation 
possessing  some  attraction  for  the  immigrant.  Propaganda 
service  abroad  has  been  established,  and  both  the  federal 
and  state  governments  have  undertaken  the  formation  of 
foreign  colonies  upon  public  lands.  Similar  settlements 
are  instituted  by  railway  and  other  companies  who  hold 
large  territorial  concessions,  and  thus  the  methods  in  force 
in  the  British  dominions  are,  though  in  a  much  less  favour- 
able way,  employed  in  South  America.  In  Brazil  the 
inducements  offered  shew  the  growing  value  set  upon  immi- 
gration. On  each  lot  a  house  is  built  ready  for  immediate 
occupation  by  the  immigrant,  its  cost  being  added  to  the 
cost  of  the  land,  generally  payable  by  instalments.  Colonies 
are  planned  on  lines  broad  enough  to  include  the  relatives 
and  friends  of  immigrants  who  might  come  out  afterwards. 
On  the  holdings,  tools  and  seeds  may  be  provided  either  by 
the  state  or  the  federal  government  free  to  the  colonist, 
and  financial  help  to  tide  him  over  until  he  may  have  dis- 
posed of  his  first  harvest.  There  are  other  conditions  wliich 
are  of  an  unusual  character,  such  as  that  of  endowing  the 
marriage  of  a  Brazilian  and  an  immigrant  with  title  to  land 
free  of  initial  payment.    Free  medical  attendance  for  one  year 


474  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

to  the  immigrant  is  generally  given.  These  various  allure- 
ments to  attract  a  share  of  the  world's  emigrating  population 
on  the  part  of  the  largest  state  of  South  America  require,  of 
course,  individual  investigation  and  safeguard,  and  it  is 
often  the  case  that  much  is  apparently  offered  which  in 
practice  it  is  difficult  to  attain. 

The  other  states  of  South  America  possess  less  favourable 
conditions  for  attracting  foreign  people  to  their  territories, 
due  partly  to  lack  of  means  of  communication  and  of  govern- 
ment funds  and  initiative  ;  partly  to  the  less  accessible 
condition  of  their  dominions.  In  Chile  a  good  sum  annually 
is  spent  on  the  colonisation  policy,  and  there  are  large  tracts 
of  land  suitable  for  settlement.  A  free  passage  is  provided 
for  immigrants  and  their  families  from  European  ports, 
and  free  transport  into  the  interior,  with  an  allowance  for 
maintenance  from  the  time  of  arrival  in  the  country  until 
the  colonists  are  settled  upon  their  holdings,  A  free  grant 
of  ninety-four  acres  of  good  land  is  made  to  each  head  of  a 
family,  with  forty-four  additional  acres  for  each  son  over 
ten  years  of  age  A  government  loan  is  obtainable  during 
the  first  year  of  cultivation,  and  a  certain  amount  of  material 
for  house-building  is  given  free,  as  is  also  medical  attendance 
for  two  years.  The  obligations  attaching  to  these  conditions 
are  that  the  land  shall  be  worked  for  a  minimum  period  of 
six  years  and  instalment  payments  made  without  interest. 
It  cannot  be  said,  however,  that  a  large  flow  of  immigration 
has  been  attracted,  as  shewn  in  the  chapter  devoted  to  the 
country  ;  and  caution  must  be  exercised  by  the  emigrant. 

Peru  and  other  countries  of  a  like  nature,  whilst  offering 
advantageous  conditions  in  free  land,  have  not  the  same 
inducements.  In  1921  a  number  of  British  colonists  went 
to  Peru  by  government  invitation,  but  returned  disaffected, 
Peru  repaying  their  passage  money.  Peru  possesses  great 
areas  of  valuable  land  upon  the  upper  regions  of  the 
Amazon,  both  in  the  form  of  uncleared  forests  and  in  the 
natural  grass  plains — regions  which  could  support  a  large 
population :  but  they  are  remote  from  means  of  communica- 
tion, and  but  little  known.  Yet  once  the  tide  of  emigration 
turns  that  way  those  plains  and  valleys  will  attain  a  rapid 


FOREIGN  RELATIONS  AND  COMMERCE      475 

rise  in  value.  On  the  coast  the  lands  are  in  the  possession 
of  private  holders,  and  although  often  vtiluable,  expensive 
irrigation  systems  are  essential  for  agriculture, 

Mexico  formerly  made  an  active  campaign  for  new 
settlers,  with  inducements  as  regarded  land  tenure  and 
other  matters  which  possessed  attractions  in  certain 
respects.  Large  regions  are  still  uninhabited,  and  fertile 
land  could  be  obtained  by  purchase  or  by  free  grant,  accord- 
ing to  the  various  provisions  connected  therewith.  Organisa- 
tion of  colonies  and  the  establishment  of  new  town  sites  were 
aided  by  the  government,  passages  being  granted  in  some 
cases  to  colonists,  with  free  transport  to  the  interior,  main- 
tenance for  a  certain  period,  tools,  seed,  and  other  matters. 
But  conditions  since  the  late  political  turmoil  differ  widely. 

It  is  to  Italy  and  Spain  that  the  Latin  American  repubhcs 
have  looked  for  their  new  colonists  principally.  Italy 
has  not  invested  capital  to  any  extent  in  those  countries, 
but  she  has  sent  there  a  multitude  of  her  "  surplus  "  labour  ; 
and  Italians  outstrip  all  other  European  immigrants,  includ- 
ing Spain,  in  this  respect.  A  rough  census  taken  in  1901 
placed  the  total  number  of  Italians  in  South  America  at 
about  1,750,000,  which  were  distributed  approximately  as 
to  1,000,000  in  Brazil  and  618,000  in  Argentina  ;  whilst 
Uruguay,  Chile,  Peru,  Venezuela,  and  Paraguay  accounted 
for  100,000,  13,000,  12,000,  8,000,  and  4,000  respectively. 
In  1907,  80,000  Italians  went  to  Brazil,  21,000  to  Argentine, 
and  about  half  returned.  In  1911  Italian  statistics  gave  a 
total  of  2,500,000  Italians  in  South  America,  of  whom 
1,500,000  were  in  Brazil.  The  number  of  immigrants  varies 
greatly  year  by  year.  It  tended  to  decrease  in  Brazil, 
and  to  increase  in  Argentina,  where,  of  the  total  population, 
15  per  cent,  are  Italians.  But  due  to  the  Italian  government's 
restrictions  they  decreased  in  1912  in  Argentina  and  increased 
in  Brazil,  which  received  230,000  immigrants  in  that  year, 
including  a  large  number  of  Portuguese.  Next  to,  or  equal 
in  importance  with  British  capital,  the  Italian  labour  has 
been  the  main  factor  in  the  development  of  Argentina. 
It  was  the  building  of  the  Argentine  network  of  railways 
that  formed  the  tirst  incentive  to  their  immigration  to  the 


476  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH  AMERICA 

River  Plate  ;  and  wheat-growing  followed.  Artisans  and 
labourers  of  all  kinds  went  in  later,  and  numbers  of  small 
retail  traders,  such  as  are  found  shopkeeping  all  over  Latin 
America,  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific.  The  Italians  in 
Latin  America  have  been  termed — not  always  in  a  compli- 
mentary sense — the  "  Chinese  "  of  Europe,  in  that  they 
make  their  wealth  out  of  the  country  instead  of  taking  it  in, 
and  follow  small  commercial  pursuits  under  conditions  of 
keen  competition.  But  their  labour  has  been  of  equivalent 
value,  perhaps,  with  the  capital  of  other  nations.  This  class 
has,  with  its  keen  trading  instinct,  contributed  considerably 
to  the  growth  of  the  smaller  towns,  especially  in  Argentina. 
Even  in  the  remote  towns  of  the  Andes  small  Italian 
merchants  are  found. 

The  ItaHans  in  Argentina  have  settled  principally  in 
Buenos  Ayres,  the  province  of  La  Plata,  and  the  province  of 
Santa  Fe.  One-tenth  of  the  population  of  Buenos  Ayres  is 
Italian  :  the  capital  having  1,250,000  people  ;  and  they  are 
mainly  engaged  in  small  trades.  Among  the  Italians,  in 
1907,  there  were  already  35,000  owners  of  landed  property 
and  houses,  valued  at  more  than  £11,500,000.  Most  of  the 
labourers  are  engaged  in  wheat-growing  or  in  working  for 
wheat-growers,  and  many  return  to  Italy  after  the  harvest. 
In  the  whole  of  North  and  South  America,  according  to 
Italian  statistics,  there  were,  in  191 1,  4,250,000  Italians, 
58  per  cent,  of  which  returned  home.  Market  gardening 
finds  employment  for  many  Italians.  The  province  of 
Santa  Fe  was  the  foremost  in  attracting  the  Italian  colonist, 
where  they  number  perhaps  250,000  ;  and  Rosario,  the 
capital,  has  one-fifth  of  its  population  formed  of  Italians, 
who  are  engaged  in  every  kind  of  trade.  In  the  town  and 
province  of  Cordova  they  are  almost  as  numerous  propor- 
tionally as  in  Rosario.  The  Italian  colonists  are  generally 
marked  by  their  thrift,  and  their  spirit  of  benevolence  to- 
wards their  own  countrymen  :  an  Italian  generally  helps  an 
Italian.  This  is  also  a  Chinese  trait  in  America.  In  the 
province  of  La  Plata  there  are  more  than  120  Italian 
"  Societies  for  Mutual  Benevolence."  The  figures  con- 
cerning Italian  colonists  do  not  take  into  account  the  children 


FOREIGN   RELATIONS   AND   COMMERCE       477 

born  in  the  country,  who  are  regarded  as  Argentine  citizens 
The  ItaHans  do  not  lose  their  nationality  in  one  generation  ; 
the  land  of  their  birth  is  generally  regarded  with  reverence 
from  afar,  but  despite  the  efforts  of  the  schools  and  societies 
which  they  maintain  for  the  preservation  of  their  own 
language  and  methods  in  their  adopted  country,  the  children 
of  the  Italians  become  Argentinos,  and  their  parents  insen- 
sibly follow.  This  considerable  immigration  of  its  citizens 
is  a  serious  loss  to  Italy,  but  a  country  whose  social  system, 
and  conditions  with  regard  to  land  tenure  are  such  as  drive 
its  sons  and  daughters  abroad,  has  only  itself  to  blame, 
and  the  condition  is  likely  to  continue  until  an  awakening 
comes.  One  item  of  consolation  there  is  for  Italy,  in  the 
very  considerable  trade  carried  on  between  Italy  and 
Argentina  :  the  republic  being  the  best  market  for  many 
special  products  demanded  by  the  oversea  Italians.  Further- 
more, the  emigrants  send  back  considerable  sums  of  money 
to  their  relatives,  the  Italian  Emigration  Department  giving 
as  an  estimate  the  sum  of  £3,500,000  sterhng  as  annually 
sent  home  from  America,  generally  by  Italians.  The  suspen- 
sion of  Italian  emigration  to  Argentina,  which  had  earlier 
been  enacted  by  the  government  of  Rome,  due  to  the  poor 
condition  of  the  immigrants  in  that  part  of  South  America, 
was  removed  in  August,  1912. 

As  shewn  elsewhere  here,  the  number  of  immigrants 
over  emigrants  for  the  year  1920  was  only  about  40,000, 
a  relatively  small  number. 

Colonising  and  immigration  in  Argentina  are  far  from  being 
an  unqualified  success,  whether  from  the  point  of  view  of 
the  immigrant  or  the  nation.  There  are  several  causes 
immediately  responsible  for  this  condition,  one  of  which  is 
economically  false,  and  another  socially  wrong.  The  first  is 
the  difficulty  the  colonist  experiences  in  obtaining  a  desir- 
able homestead,  or  small  holdings,  and  the  high  cost  of 
hving  in  the  towns :  suitable  land  with  a  proper  title  is 
difficult  to  obtain.  The  second  is  the  lack  of  local  justice, 
and  the  existence  of  persecution  away  from  the  great  cities, 
of   which  frequent  complaints   are   made,   and   protection 


478  CENTRAL   AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

by  the  police  is  even  more  difficult  of  attainment.  Pro- 
vincial and  municipal  authorities  are  often  corrupt  and 
extortionate.  Heavy  taxation  and  the  mal-administration 
of  justice  are  conditions  against  which  the  poor  colonist  can- 
not contend,  and  both  combine  to  render  life  difficult  in 
the  interior  of  Argentina.  These  matters  reach  the  outside 
world  from  time  to  time,  as  an  indication  of  a  reprehensible 
state  of  affairs  within.*  As  regards  justice,  it  is  not  that 
the  laws  are  bad,  for  in  theory  they  are  almost  perfect,  but 
that  they  are  badly  interpreted  and  enforced.  The  pro- 
visions of  the  great  "  Code  Napoleon  "  are  useless  if  the 
spirit  of  everyday  justice  is  violated  ;  and  the  well-informed 
colonist  will  naturally  hesitate  in  venturing  to  a  country 
where,  in  the  great  open  spaces  in  which  his  life  is  to  be  lived, 
prompt  and  cheap  justice  is  not  obtainable,  especially  among 
a  heterogeneous  population,  drawn  in  the  main  from  races 
who  hold  human  life  cheaper  than  human  property.  In 
Argentina  theft  is  more  severely  dealt  with  than  homicide. 
It  is  in  the  growth  of  public  opinion  that  these  abuses  must 
find  their  remedy,  and  it  is  but  fair  to  say  that  some  im- 
provement has  been  observed  of  recent  years,  and  that  the 
Argentine  government  assiduously  endeavours  to  attract 
immigrants. 

The  ordinary  emigrant  from  the  British  Isles  has  generally 
been  made  aware  that,  under  present  conditions,  Latin 
America  is  rarely  a  suitable  field  for  him.  The  Spaniard, 
Portuguese,  and  Italian  work  side  by  side,  but  in  manual 
labour  the  British  cannot  do  this,  unless  it  be  under  their  own 
flag.  Moreover,  the  men  of  the  Latin  race,  when  they  make 
their  living  in  petty  trades  and  occupations  of  an  urban 
character,  as  small  merchants,  shopkeepers  and  the  Uke,  are 
far  more  astute  than  the  men  of  Anglo-Saxon  race.  Itahans, 
Spaniards,  and  even  Austrians  and  other  people  from  central 
Europe  succeed  in  small  trades,  often  by  means  of  high 
prices,  short  weights,  and  other  petty  extortionate  methods 
which  are  more  or  less  foreign  to  the  Anglo-Saxon  character. 

The  educated  man  without  capital,  cannot  be  advised  to 
emigrate  to  South  America  or  Mexico  unless  he  goes  to  a 

•  The  Times  South  American  Supplement,  1912, 


FOREIGN   RELATIONS  AND   COMMERCE       479 

salaried  position ;  and  this  can  scarcely  be  termed  emigra- 
tion. His  position  would  be  an  anomalous  one.  The  work 
in  offices,  shops,  and  stores,  which  at  home  he  might  perform, 
is  done  in  the  southern  republics  by  the  middle-class  native, 
and  generally  rates  of  pay  are  low.  There  are  no  conditions 
for  the  middle-class  emigrant  such  as  exist  in  Canada,  where 
even  menial  work  can  be  performed  without  loss  of  caste. 
The  young  man  of  Anglo-Saxon  race  without  capital  is  cut 
off  from  Spanish  America  under  present  conditions,  and  will 
naturally  seek  the  British  colonies.  He  cannot  work  among 
half-breeds.  The  Englishman  of  the  labouring  class  not 
unjustifiably  considers  himself  better  than  any  of  his  class 
among  the  Latin  race,  and  the  same  holds  good  with  the 
North  American  working  man. 

Despite  these  considerations,  both  from  the  national 
and  international  point  of  view,  a  vigorous  immigration  of 
people  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  and  Teutonic  races  into  Latin 
America  would  be  beneficial,  if  suitable  conditions  were 
secured.  However  large  it  might  be,  the  domination  of  the 
Latin  race  would  scarcely  be  jeopardised,  and  the  admix- 
ture, where  it  has  occurred,  produces  a  vigorous  and  intelU- 
gent  strain.  It  is  natural  for  Great  Britain  to  seek  to  direct 
her  emigratory  people  to  her  own  colonies  ;  but,  both  as 
regards  international  friendships  and  the  maintenance  of 
trade  with  Latin  America,  it  is  useful  that  British  blood 
should  be  disseminated  outside  the  empire.  In  the  stagnant 
communities  of  the  Andean  republics,  British,  German,  or 
North  American  settlements  would  act  as  centres  of  educa- 
tion and  example.  The  future  of  the  world  lies  not  in  the 
political  expansion  of  nations  at  the  expense  of  each  other, 
but  in  the  dissemination  of  new  ideas,  free  intercourse  with 
each  other,  and  mutual  assistance  and  regard.  Conditions 
for  successful  colonisation  by  British  immigrants  might  be 
secured  under  some  method  of  co-operative  settlement 
where  they  would  form  communities  apart.  Argentina 
possesses  certain  advantages  for  Englishmen.  The  climate 
is  less  rigorous  than  that  of  Canada,  and  it  is  much  nearer 
Great  Britain  than  Australia.  The  colonisation  of  the 
Falkland  isles  is  at  present  the  only  example  of  a  British 


48o  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 

settlement  in  southern  South  America,  with  the  exception 
of  the  Welsh  community  in  Patagonia. 

The  influx  and  efflux  of  immigrants  in  South  America 
gives  rise  to  an  interesting  condition.  Of  the  number  of 
immigrants  into  Argentina  the  majority  become  emigrants 
again.  In  a  sense  they  perform  a  double  service.  A  great 
body  of  Italians  and  Spaniards  goes  over  for  the  Argen- 
tine harvest,  which  occupies  them  from  November  to 
February,  and,  that  concluded,  they  enter  Brazil  to  assist 
in  gathering  the  coffee  crop,  remaining  in  that  country 
until  August.  The  comparatively  high  wages  obtained  and 
the  savings  made,  in  conjunction  with  the  low  price  of 
steamer  fare,  formerly  permitted  these  human  birds  of 
passage  to  return  to  their  native  lands  of  Spain  and  Italy, 
and  remain  at  home  for  three  or  four  months.  There  is  a 
natural  development  of  travel  and  work  in  these  conditions 
which  contains  certain  possibilities  such  as  might  be  given 
consideration  in  the  colonisation  by  Great  Britain  of  her 
dominions,  especially  as  regards  Canada.  That  the  labourer 
of  one  hemisphere  can  afford  to  cross  to  another  to  work 
there,  and  return  for  a  season  to  his  own  land  is  a  novel  con- 
dition which  might  find  some  useful  application.  This 
migratory  movement,  however,  is  largely  due  to  the  diffi- 
culty of  the  small-holder  in  obtaining  land  in  Argentina  and 
Brazil,  as  already  described. 

The  better  development  of  the  more  backward  Latin 
American  countries,  it  is  possible,  might  be  aided  by  the 
settlement  therein  of  intelligent  classes  from  Europe  and 
the  United  States,  who,  finding  the  conditions  of  life  too 
difficult  in  their  native  countries,  should  adopt  the  southern 
republics  of  the  Spanish-speaking  world  as  their  home,  under 
certain  special  conditions  and  privileges  afforded  by  the 
governments  of  such  countries.  Such  people  would  not 
be  mere  illiterate  immigrants,  such  as  pour  into  the  country 
at  present,  furnishing  little  more  than  their  labours,  but 
educated  people,  who  would  be  content  to  make  their  Uving 
in  the  country  and  confer  benefits  upon  the  people  around 
them  in  social  example,  under  certain  privileges.  There  are 
possibihties  for  such  a  class.     The  cHmate  is  in  many  regions 


FOREIGN   RELATIONS  AND  COMMERCE      481 

excellent,  and  the  native  working  classes  are  plastic  and  easily 
influenced  for  good  :  and  greatly  to  be  moulded  by  the 
superior  intelligence  of  the  educated  European.  Land  en- 
dowed with  natural  resources  is  to  be  obtained  at  a  very 
small  expenditure  of  capital  in  certain  regions.  Such  colonists 
would  have  to  be  self-dependent  :  to  understand  that  riches 
are  not  to  be  gained  necessarily  by  producing  for  export.  They 
would  live  their  life  regarded  as  distinguished  members  of 
the  community,  taking  part  in  its  direction.  Whatever 
small  capital  they  had  brought  in  would  yield  far  greater 
returns  than  in  Europe.  The  number  of  persons  in  Great 
Britain  of  superior  education,  but  without  means  of 
expansion  for  their  energies,  is  considerable  and  growing,  and 
such  an  outlet  might  offer  attractions.  The  government  of 
many  of  the  Latin  American  repubhcs  might  do  well  to 
avail  themselves  of  the  services  of  this  element.  Through- 
out Peru,  Bolivia,  Argentina,  and  other  countries  there  are 
thousands  of  petty  officials,  known  as  "  gobernadores," 
generally  mestizos  of  little  education,  steeped  in  the  methods 
of  petty  oppression  of  the  poorer  classes,  and  more  or  less 
venal.  These  posts  generally  are  unsalaried,  but  carry 
certain  perquisites.  If  an  educated  class  of  Englishmen  or 
others  could  be  brought  in  with  their  families  to  settle 
there,  acting  as  magistrates  and  so  forth,  after  the  system 
in  British  India,  a  useful  purpose  might  be  served.  Europe 
has  much  administrative  talent  going  to  waste,  which 
Latin  America  lacks,  and  the  character  of  the  British 
man  of  education  and  his  administrative  ability  would  be 
of  incalculable  value  to  Latin  American  communities,  in 
the  civilisation  and  advancement  of  the  remote  interior 
regions.  Possibly,  however,  that  is  outside  the  range  of 
practicability,  at  present. 

The  political  and  commercial  relations  of  the  Latin 
American  republics  with  foreign  countries  are  in  an 
interesting  condition  of  flux  and  development.  The  possi- 
bilities they  offer  for  trade,  for  immigration,  and  even  for 
territorial  aggression,  are  subjects  of  constant  discussion 
and  rivalry. 

The   two   nations   generally   accredited   with   ideas   of 

HH 


482  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

territorial  aggression  or  acquisition  in  Latin  America  were 
the  United  States  and  Germany.  Before  the  war  the  Latin 
American  repubUcs  were  subject  to  growing  suspicions 
of  their  powerful  Anglo-American  neighbour,  the  United 
States,  which  the  latter  has  striven  diligently  to  allay. 
Inroads  upon  the  integrity  of  their  territories  have  been 
feared,  or  profession  of  fear  made,  and  doubt  expressed  of 
the  sincerity  of  the  Americans  in  dealing  with  the  political 
condition  of  their  weaker  neighbours. 

That  the  Americans  could  ever  gain  permanent  advantage 
by  encroaching  upon  Mexico,  or  other  Latin  American  country, 
or  that  they  have  any  idea  of  territorial  acquisition  at  the 
expense  of  the  Southern  republics,  is  greatly  to  be  doubted. 
The  tendency  of  the  world  is  not  towards  hegemony  on  the 
part  of  large  nations,  but  rather  to  "  home  rule,"  or  the 
increasing  independence  of  small  states.  The  futility  of 
attempted  domination  of  one  race  by  another,  except  under 
very  exceptional  circumstances,  or  temporarily,  is  evident 
to  the  disinterested  student  of  world-politics.*  The 
United  States  would  enjoy  little  in  Mexico  were  they 
able  to  conquer  it  by  force  of  arms,  and  were  it  placed 
arbitrarily  under  the  Stars  and  Stripes.  A  condition  of 
race-hatred  such  as  has  rarely  been  seen  in  the  history  of 
the  world  would  be  set  up.  Economically  nothing  would 
be  gained.  The  American  labourer  will  never  work  side 
by  side  with  the  Mexican  ;  the  country  as  a  market  is 
already  captured  or  could  be  captured  by  the  United 
States,  as  far  as  such  is  possible  in  the  present  world-com- 
petition of  nations.  The  raw  material  and  food  products 
of  Mexico  are  required  by  the  people  of  the  country,  and 
could  never  form  any  considerable  adjunct  to  the  American 
table  or  factory  ;  and  if  they  are  required  they  are  as  easily 
obtained  under  existing  conditions.  No  sane  American 
administration  could  pretend  permanent  occupation  of 
Mexico  ;  the  time  for  such  conquest  is  past,  or  never  existed 
in  this  case.  The  parallel  of  England  and  the  South 
African  repubhc   might  be  cited,  but  this  was  a  different 

*  The  author  brought,  forward  this  point  in  his  book,  "  An  Imperial 
Commonwealth."     London,  1909. 


FOREIGN  RELATIONS  AND  COMMERCE       483 

case.  ]\Iany  recent  struggles  and  conflicts  shew  how  use- 
less and  criminal  it  is  to  endeavour  to  extinguish  a  nation- 
ality. In  the  case  of  South  Africa  it  was  not  unnatural 
to  set  up  the  self-government  of  two  races,  both  of  which 
were  so  largely  represented,  and  which  now  owes  only 
sentimental  allegiance  to  Britain.  American  settlements 
and  financial  holdings  in  ]\Iexico  are  too  inconsiderable  to 
warrant  any  participation  in  the  government  of  the  country  by 
America.  The  United  States  nation  as  a  whole  are  averse 
from  trespassing  upon  the  rights  of  other  nations  :  and  they 
have  neither  the  desire  nor  the  talent  to  undertake  the  ad- 
ministration of  people  of  different  race  and  language.  Their 
behaviour  in  Cuba  has  been  exemplary  and  rational.  The 
doubtful  morality  attending  the  acquisition  of  sovereignty 
over  the  Panama  Canal  zone  obeyed  commercial  and  defensive 
motives,  rather  than  purposes  of  political  aggrandisement. 
Intervention  in  the  domestic  affairs  of  Central  American 
republics,  if  it  be  brought  about,  will  be  by  reason  of 
following  out  the  self-assumed  but  natural  and  useful  role 
of  policeman  in  the  new  world  :  and  the  desire  to  enjoy  a 
preponderance  of  trade  therewith.  Despite  these  con- 
siderations, the  attitude  of  the  United  States  towards 
Latin  America  has  at  times  given  rise  to  a  feeling  of  resent- 
ment and  perplexity  on  the  part  of  their  sensitive  southern 
neighbours ;  but  American  diplomacy  is  studying  more 
closely  the  character  of  the  Latin  American  peoples,  with 
increasing  understanding  and  mutual  regard  as  the  result. 
But  what  the  future  may  hold  in  the  sphere  of  American 
political  action  it  would  be  impossible  to  predict. 

The  German  nation  has  been  credited  from  time  to  time 
with  the  desire  to  possess  itself  of  territory  in  South  America, 
which  it  might  control  politically  as  well  as  commercially. 
That  the  desire  has  existed  and  still  exists  there  is  little 
doubt  ;  but  that  the  intention  is  to  be  brought  forward  is 
a  matter  which  will  depend  upon  international  conditions, 
whose  trend  at  present  is  not  apparent.  The  subject  may 
be  regarded  from  more  than  one  point  of  view.  Germany 
has  come  too  late  into  the  sphere  of  a  leading  nation  to 
obtain  a  share  in  the  unoccupied  spaces  of  the  world,  in 


484  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH  AMERICA 

which  she  might  have  founded  colonies.  At  a  time  when 
Enghshmen  of  sinew  and  adventurous  spirit  were  marking 
out  spheres  of  possession,  the  petty  royalties  of  Germany 
were  keeping  their  numerous  courts,  and  that  phase  of 
world-development  of  which  Spain  and  Britain  were  the 
masters  has  passed.  After  that  arose  the  question,  What  is 
a  Colony  ?  Spain  decided  it  in  one  way,  Britain  in  another  ; 
but  Germany  to-day  may  still  strive  to  ask  the  same  question 
and  endeavour  to  decide  it  in  her  way.  A  colony  is  one  of 
two  things.  Either  it  is  a  possession  which  yields  absolute 
and  exclusive  advantage  to  its  parent  land,  or  it  is  an 
independent  unit  joined  by  ties  of  sentiment  and  a  common 
flag,  but  giving  no  special  advantage  to  its  parent  source. 
In  the  last  category  are  the  self-governing  dominions  of 
the  British  Empire.  In  Canada,  Australia,  or  any  other 
of  the  five  autonomous  English-speaking  states,  the  English- 
man has  practically  no  privilege  over  any  other  nation, 
whose  emigrants  or  traders  are  equally  open  to  acquire 
homesteads  or  markets.  The  British  ratepayer  has 
ungrudgingly  borne  the  cost  of  naval  armaments,  which 
have  protected  the  colonies  in  their  growth  ;  but  his  reward 
is  much  less  a  material  than  an  altruistic  one,  and  must 
always  be  so.  The  conquest  of  commerce  and  trade  is 
attained  now,  not  only  by  enterprise,  but  doubtful  methods, 
and  if  the  nations  can  oust  each  other  from  the  markets  of 
the  world,  they  will  do  so,  and  future  conflict  may  be  ex- 
pected. But  despite  these  premises,  Germany  or  any  other 
colonising  nation  might  contend  that  the  vast  uninhabited 
region  of  South  America  would  be  an  advantageous  field 
for  political  occupations:  and  set  itself  towards  a  policy 
of  conquest.  There  is  little  doubt  that  the  partition  of 
various  territories  of  Latin  America  by  certain  European 
powers  would  have  taken  place  were  it  not  for  the  restrain- 
ing influence  of  the  United  States;  of  its  public  opinion 
and  naval  armaments,  whose  general  concrete  expression 
is  that  of  the  Monroe  Doctrine.  Had  it  not  been  for  these 
elements  the  German  flag  would  possibly  have  floated 
over  portions  of  South  America.      That  such  should  so 


FOREIGN  RELATIONS  AND  COMMERCE      485 

occur,  however,  cannot  be  held  to  be  possible  now,  though 
some  sudden  change  in  world-politics  might  require  a  more 
rapid  colonization  of  empty  lands.  The  subject  of  such 
occupation  of  land  by  oversea  powers  bears  discussion  from 
the  point  of  view  of  expediency,  although  the  outrage  of 
the  sovereignty  of  Latin  America  by  foreign  occupation  of 
any  portion  of  their  territory  could  not  morally  be  condoned. 
It  can  scarcely  be  doubted  that  if  an  offshoot  of  Germany 
had  existed  in  South  America,  the  development  and  peopling 
of  the  continent  would  have  been  greatly  augmented.  Such 
a  colony  or  possession  would  not  be  likely  to  have  remained 
permanently  under  the  German  flag,  supposing  it  were 
estabUshed,  for  the  German  colonist  is  undoubtedly  happier 
under  a  foreign  flag.  On  the  whole,  conditions  were  better, 
in  view  of  the  war,  without  a  German  element.  But  the 
enormous  tracts  of  land  in  the  heart  of  South  America, 
often  inhabited  at  present  by  little  more  than  savages  and 
monkeys,  were  they  subject  to  an  inrush  of  civilising  Euro- 
pean people  and  capital,  would  certainly  gain  thereby.  The 
history  of  colonies  everywhere  shews  that  it  is  physically 
impossible  to  make  of  them  permanent  fields  of  spoliation 
or  oppression,  or  even  to  subject  them  always  to  political 
control;  and  when  such  European  settlements  grew  up 
they  would  inevitably  form  part  of  the  Latin  American 
people,  whose  status  and  sovereignty  is  too  strongly  fixed 
to  be  more  than  momentarily  interrupted.  A  large  infusion 
of  European  blood,  especially  of  Teutonic  or  Anglo-Saxon, 
would  be  of  great  benefit  to  the  stagnant  continent,  and 
from  that  point  of  view  it  seems  a  matter  for  regret  that 
the  German  nation  had  not  been  permitted  to  expend  a 
portion  of  its  strength  and  fecundity  upon  South  America 
before  its  moral  character  was  ruined  by  the  war  and  before 
that  fecundity  were  lessened,  as  the  lowering  birth-rate 
shews  is  likely  to  occur. 

So  far  the  penetration  of  South  America  by  Germany 
under  the  method  of  industrial  colonisation  and  by  trade 
and  commerce  has  been  noteworthy.  The  earliest  German 
attempts  at  settlement  found  little  success,  due  in  the  main 


486  CENTRAL   AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

to  want  of  proper  organisation  and  encouragement  from 
home.  This  was  not  the  case  afterwards.  Powerful  organisa- 
tions and  national  encouragement  have  been  responsible 
for  important  German  centres  in  Brazil  in  this  century :  and 
were  it  not  that  the  national  flag  is  Brazilian,  these  centres 
might  almost  be  taken  for  parts  of  the  German  "Empire."  In 
Santa  Catherina  and  adjacent  places  German  settlements, 
embodying  4,000  square  miles  of  land,  have  been  established, 
with  20  per  cent,  of  the  population  of  German  origin  and 
the  German  language  spoken  everywhere.  In  the  province 
of  Rio  Grande  do  Sul  it  is  estimated  that  there  are  250,000 
Germans,  equal  to  a  quarter  of  the  population.  The  Germans 
endeavour  to  keep  alive  their  national  traditions  and  spirit 
in  these  colonies  by  every  means  possible,  including  the 
establishing  of  social  centres,  clubs,  schools  and  other 
characteristic  German  institutions:  whilst  the  local  admin- 
istration is  controlled  by  Germans.  This  Teutonic  invasion 
might  have  become  a  source  of  anxiety  to  South  and  North 
American  statesmen,  as  opening  a  way  to  political  acquisi- 
tion of  territory  by  Germany,  whenever  German  interests 
might  feel  themselves  sufficiently  established  to  proclaim 
such  a  policy.  But  any  such  fears  were  exaggerated.  The 
German-speaking  people  in  Brazil  are  not  German  subjects. 
They  did  not  wish  to  be  part  of  a  German  Empire,  as  shewn 
by  the  fact  that  they  lost  little  time  in  naturalising  them- 
selves as  Brazilian  citizens.  The  second  generation  forgets 
the  Fatherland,  and  begins  to  speak  the  language  of  the 
country.  Whilst  these  Pan-Germans — if  such  they  be — 
are  a  loss  to  the  military  forces  of  Germany,  they  form 
on  the  other  hand  a  favourable  centre  of  consumption  for 
German  goods,  and  at  least  for  that  reason  are  regarded 
favourably  by  the  Fatherland. 

All  these  considerations  have,  however,  been  greatly 
modified  by  the  war.  As  an  empire  Germany  does  not — at 
present — exist,  and  whether  or  not  the  formerly  aggressive 
overseas  or  colonising  spirit  will  grow  again  only  the  future 
can  shew.  The  work  of  the  League  of  Nations  and  of  the 
Washington  Conference  (1921-22)  and  other  matters  has 
also  modified  world-conditions  in  these  respects. 


FOREIGN  RELATIONS  AND  COMMERCE      487 

The  United  States  would  undoubtedly  go  to  war  in  the 
defence  of  the  doctrine,  but  war  for  them  in  South  America 
would  be  mainly  a  naval  battle,  and  the  result  would  depend 
upon  the  stronger  fleet.  The  Monroe  Doctrine  forbids 
political  transfer  of  territory  in  the  American  hemisphere 
between  non-American  people,  but  such  an  exemption  or 
prohibition  of  transfer  not  only  has  no  precedent  in  law, 
but  is  without  treaty  support  from  any  other  nation,  and 
it  rests  solely  upon  the  will  of  the  United  States  citizens,  and 
can  only  be  supported  in  an  extreme  case  by  sea  power. 
If  the  struggle  for  South  American  territory  should  come, 
whether  from  Europe,  whether  from  Asia — Japan,  for 
example — its  results  will  depend  upon  naval  armaments. 

There  is  some  successful  German  colonisation  in  Guate- 
mala and  in  Chile,  and  German  banking  is  closely  allied  with 
these  matters.  The  advance  of  German  methods  and 
influence  in  Chile  was  formerly  marked,  and  gave  rise 
to  the  term  "  Germanisation  of  Chile."  The  Germans 
are  much  more  active  in  bringing  forward  their  trade 
and  colonising  influence  than  the  British.  In  1909  the 
German  schools  in  Chile  were  attended  by  nearly  3,000 
pupils,  and  the  "  thorough  "  methods  of  the  Germans  are 
evident  in  their  mixing  with  Chilean  society.  The  Germans 
in  South  America  invariably  speak  Spanish,  and  the  trade 
lists  and  catalogues  of  German  commercial  travellers  and 
manufacturers  are  provided  in  the  same  language.  In 
Argentina  Germans  have  settled  to  a  considerable  extent, 
and  it  is  towards  this  republic  that  the  main  stream  of 
German  emigration  was  setting  before  the  war.  Large  areas 
of  land  have  been  obtained  by  colonisation  societies  for 
the  settling  upon  them  of  families  taken  directly  from  the 
Fatherland.  The  Germans  were  regarded  as  desirable  settlers 
in  Latin  America  by  the  republics  generally,  and  doubtless 
immigration  will  grow.  The  importance,  politically,  of 
German  immigration  as  a  possible  menace  has  been  exag- 
gerated. The  activity  of  Germany  in  South  America  is 
mainly  due  to  the  possibilities  of  commercial  and  financial 
gain   which  those  gro^ving  communities  offer.      Probably 


488  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH  AMERICA 

the  conquests  of  territory  have  ceased,  or  have  ceased 
at  present  in  the  New  World,  and  the  conquest  of  market 
and  dividend  is  that  which  exercises  the  rivalry  of  foreign 
nations  in  South  and  Central  America  and  Mexico.  It  would, 
however,  be  rash  to  forecast  the  future. 

The  most  active  nation  in  the  commercial  conquest  of 
Latin  America  so  far,  has  been  Great  Britain.  The  develop- 
ment of  the  principal  Latin  American  republics  was  begun 
with  British  gold.  It  built  the  railways,  opened  the  mines, 
and  financed  the  plantations  and  the  banks  to  an  extent 
greater  than  that  of  all  other  investing  nations  combined. 
This  great  investment  of  capital,  although  at  times  it  was 
hazardous  and  adventurous,  brought  as  a  result  the  pre- 
ponderance of  trade  with  England,  which  has  been  the 
outstanding  feature  of  Latin  American  commerce,  and 
which  although  in  diminishing  proportion  is  still  maintained. 
The  geographical  distribution  of  capital,  which  tends  to 
preserve  a  balance  in  British  commerce  and  income,  has  an 
important  seat  in  Latin  America.  Scarcely  a  single  industry 
is  unrepresented  by  British  capital.  Scores  of  offices  and 
Boards  of  Directors  in  London  attest  the  part  played  by 
the  British  merchant  and  shareholder  in  those  regions. 
There  is  no  more  striking  instance  of  the  power  of  money, 
than  that  the  inhabitants  of  the  small  island  of  Britain 
should  have  been  the  means  of  bringing  about  the  develop- 
ment, in  considerable  part,  of  the  extensive  communities  of 
Latin  America.  Exact  calculations  of  the  amount  of 
British  capital  invested  in  these  countries  it  is  impossible 
to  make,  but  the  amounts  represented  by  shares  quoted 
on  the  London  Stock  Exchange  may  be  taken  to  represent 
the  minimum.  These  at  the  close  of  the  period  before  the 
war  were  as  follows :  * 

Government       Railways.         Miscellns.  Total. 

Securities. 

i  i  £  i 

Argentina         78.967,966      201,734,494      49,188,340  329,890,800 

Brazil              106,025,690        51,223,679      53,850,426  211,099,795 

Chili                 33,650,880         18,743,320        8,730,713  61,124,913 

Uruguay          25,714,421         15.380.073        4,739,892  45,834,386 
*  Compiled  by  the  South  American  Journal. 


FOREIGN   RELATIONS  AND  COMMERCE       489 


Government 

Railways. 

Miscellns. 

Total. 

Securities. 

i 

/ 

i 

/ 

1,772.440 

462,933 

23.542.S10 

25.778.183 

293.740 

— 

— 

293.740 

4,361.420 

2.745.976 

975.289 

8.082.685 

2,486,600 

4,299,200 

— 

6,785.800 

200,808 

2.644,440 

— 

2,845.248 

773.750 

2,242,930 

— 

3,016,680 

27.413.630 

101,436,789 

28,078,140 

156,928.559 

1.445,220 

— 

— 

1,445,220 

851,900 

1.435.300 

— 

2,287,200 

3.143,200 

— 

— 

3,143.200 

1,071,240 

— 

— 

1,071,240 

2.010,770 

3.370.600 

200,000 

5.581.370 

9,892,000 

25.533.998 

6,633,920 

42,059,918 

— 

— 

— 

11.658,530 

— 

— 

— 

18,212,983 

300.075,675 

431.253.732 

175.939.530 

937,140,450 

Peru 

Bolivia 

Venezuela 

Colombia 

Ecuador 

Paraguay 

Mexico 

Guatemala 

Salvador 

Honduras 

Nicaragua 

Costa  Rica 

Panama 

Cuba 

Shipping 

Banks 


The  most  successful  British  interests  in  South  America 
are  generally  considered  to  be  the  banks.  These  have 
yielded,  as  a  rule,  steadily  improving  dividends,  and  have 
added  largely  to  their  reserve  and  other  funds.  The  eight 
principal  banking  concerns  in  this  field,  whose  shares  are 
quoted  on  the  London  Stock  Exchange, — five  being  com- 
panies registered  in  England  and  directed  from  London 
— have  a  total  subscribed  capital  of  ;^2i, 288,048,  of  which 
about  ;^i6,ooo,ooo  is  paid  up.  The  dividends  paid  by 
these  banks  during  many  years  have  amounted  to  sums 
equal  to  an  average  of  nearly  15  per  cent,  on  the  paid-up 
capital.  One  leading  bank  is  the  London  and  River  Plate 
Bank,  which  at  the  close  of  1912  celebrated  its  fiftieth 
anniversary,  having  been  established  in  1862,  and  for 
many  years  the  company  has  paid  a  dividend  of  20  per 
cent,  to  its  shareholders.  The  authorised  capital  of  this 
bank  has  recently  been  increased  to  £4,000,000,  of  which 
£3,000,000  has  been  issued,  and  £1,800,000  will  eventually 
be  paid  up.  The  present  holders,  whose  shares  are  now 
worth  £60,  have  only  been  called  upon  to  pay  £10  there- 
for. The  National  Bank  of  Mexico,  with  a  capital  subscribed 
and  paid  up  of  £3,178,000,  also  paid  20  per  cent,  dividend. 
The  London  and  Brazilian  Bank,  with  a  subscribed  capital 


490  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 

of  ;f 2, 000,000  and  a  paid-up  capital  of  £1,000,000,  paid  17 
per  cent.  ;  the  British  Bank  of  South  America,  with 
subscribed  and  paid-up  capitals  respectively  of  £1,500,000 
and  £750,000,  paid  15  per  cent. ;  the  Bank  of  Peru  and 
Mexico,  £500,000  capital  subscribed  and  paid-up,  14  per 
cent.  ;  the  Banco  Espanol  del  Rio  de  La  Plata,  with  an 
office  in  London,  12  per  cent. ;  the  London  Bank  of  Mexico, 
12  per  cent.*  The  important,  active  Anglo-South  American 
bank  has  capital  and  reserves  of  £12,500,000. 

The  foregoing  particulars  shew  that  whether  from  the 
point  of  view  of  security,  or  dividends,  the  South  American 
banks  may  be  regarded  as  satisfactory,  comparing  favourably 
with  British  or  other  banking  concerns.  The  field  of 
investment  was  for  a  long  time  mainly  British,  but  at 
present  it  is  disputed  by  state-owned  banks,  in  the  various 
republics,  and  by  various  successful  and  enterprising 
German  banking  institutions,  especially  prominent  among 
which  is  the  Deutsche  Bank.  North  American  interests 
have  been  practically  unrepresented,  but  there  are  indications 
that  American  groups  are  to  enter  the  field. 

It  is  not  possible  to  calculate  with  any  exactitude  the 
return  upon  other  capital  investments,  but  as  regards 
the  railways,  the  total  mileage  at  the  close  of  1912,  in 
the  countries  named  below,  was  20,975  miles,  engaging 
£278,889,905  of  capital,  which  produced  as  net  revenue 
£13,250,302,  or  an  average  return  of  47  per  cent,  in  the  last 
completed  year  of  working.  This  included  practically  all 
the  British-owned  railways  in  the  republics  mentioned,  and 
comprised  twenty-nine  separate  companies,  with  a  certain 
number  of  subsidiary  lines,  such  as  the  Argentine  Trans- 
andine  and  Bahia  Blanca,  whose  figures  are  included  in 
those  relating  to  the  Buenos  Ayres  and  Pacific  line.  The 
following  shows  the  mileage,  capital,  and  net  revenue  for 
the  last  completed  years,  of  this  group  : — 

Mileage.  Capital.         Net  Revenue.  % 

i  I 

Argentina  13,676  198,902,829  8,339,273  42 

Brazil  2,788  22,915,699  1,438,907  62 

Chili  1,430  14,499,057  1,331,017  91 

*"  The  foregoing  figures  refer  to  the  pro-war  period. 


FOREIGN   RELATIONS  AND  COMMERCE       491 


Uruguay 

Cuba 

Venezuela 

Total 


Mileage. 

1,224 

i,6go 

167 


Capital. 
i 
12.875.453 
26,950,867 

2,746,000 


Net  Revenue. 

£ 
708.431 
1,323,827 
108,847 


% 

55 
49 
39 


20,975         278,889.905       13,250,302         47 

With  the  numerous  mines,  plantations,  factories  and 
industries,  with  their  considerable  returns  in  many  cases, 
it  is  seen  that  a  great,  steady  stream  of  gold  flows  from  Latin 
America  to  Great  Britain,  even  if  a  good  deal  of  the  capital 
quoted  on  the  London  Stock  Exchange  is  held  by  con- 
tinental investors.  A  strong  American  element  is  at  work 
at  the  present  time  in  acquiring  railway  interests  in  the 
River  Plate  republics,  and  if  successful  the  conservative 
and  passive  British  control  may  be  exchanged  for  the 
American  "  trust  methods,"  in  which  condition  some  South 
American  and  British  journalists  see  an  undesirable  element. 
In  matters  of  trade,  Latin  America  is  one  of  the  most 
important  customers  of  Great  Britain.  The  republics 
purchased  manufactured  articles  from  Great  Britain  to 
the  annual  value  (pre-war  period)  of  £56,000,000,  equal 
to  somewhat  less  than  20  per  cent,  of  the  total  export  trade 
of  Britain:  and  exported  to  Britain  commodities  to  the 
value  of  more  than  £55,000,000,  which  must  be  regarded  as 
excellent  exchange.  About  two-thirds  of  this  considerable 
commerce  was  performed  with  Argentina,  Brazil  and  Chile. 
Figures  are  not  exact,  and  are  diflicult  to  obtain  and  often 
shew  discrepancies,  but  between  various  sources  for  the 
pre-war  years  the  estimated  total  foreign  trade  of  the  Latin 
American  countries  was  £472,000,000,  of  which,  as  stated. 
Great  Britain  accounted  for  £111,000,000.  The  following 
table  shews  these  figures  in  detail. 


IMPORTS. 


EXPORTS. 


Argentina 
Brazil 
Chill 
Uruguay 


Total 

I 

70.354.131 

47,114,967 

22,311.427 

8,230,000 

4,631,280 


From 
Great  Britain 

i 

21,875,473 

14,412,213 

7,056,282 

2,425.136 

1.567.897 


Total 

i 
74.525.215 
62,001.287 

To 
Great  Britain 

r 

16. 158.697 
14,688,114 

23.791.009 
8,305,261 
6,408,282 

9.531.546 

709. 34 9 
2.672,540 

492 


CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH  AMERICA 


IMPORTS. 

EXPORTS. 

From 

To 

Total 

Great  Britain 

Total 

Great  Britain 

i 

i 

i 

i 

Bolivia 

3.675.371 

1,500,000 

5.997.031 

3,611,081 

Venezuela 

2,243,215 

603,660 

3.422,537 

383.425 

Colombia 

3.405.127 

1,000,000 

3.525.030 

610,172 

Ecuador 

1,604,821 

496,789 

2.733.274 

228,174 

Paraguay 

1,074.967 

248.906 

883.899 

410 

Mexico 

21,012,402 

2.447.957 

29,987,198 

3,662.989 

Guatemala 

1,050,263 

227,084 

2,015,843 

201,252 

Salvador 

749.049 

233.198 

1.459.567 

96,761 

Honduras 

603,883 

84,815 

642.979 

12,520 

Nicaragua 

516.651 

125.133 

797.885 

168,690 

Costa  Rica 

1,630,500 

263,694 

1,728,900 

610.613 

Panama 

2,011,398 

433.396 

353.866 

33.054 

Cuba 

20,735,116 

2.458.443 

30,181,804 

2.139.257 

Total     /2i2,954,568   ;^56,46o,o8i  ;f 258, 760,887   /55, 518, 644 

The  important  lead  acquired  in  commerce  with  Latin 
America  by  Britain  has  long  been  held,  but  is  not  being 
maintained.  The  amount,  in  relation  to  that  of  the  United 
States  and  Germany,  is  decreasing  ;  and  French  and  Italian 
trade  is  also  increasing  with  the  Latin  American  repubUcs, 
largely  at  the  expense  of  England.  The  decline  of  British 
trade  proportionally  in  Latin  America,  has  been  so 
continually  brought  forward  that  it  has  become  a  common- 
place. Various  reasons  are  adduced.  The  custom  of 
sending  out  goods  by  manufacturers,  which  conform  to 
their  own  standard,  instead  of  adapting  the  standard  to 
the  requirements  of  purchasers  and  consumers  in  the 
countries  for  which  they  are  intended,  is  among  the  foremost. 
The  obstinate  use  of  British  instead  of  metric  measures  is 
another  cause  of  complaint.  The  Latin  American  countries 
have  generally  adopted  and  use  metric  measures,  in  great 
part.  A  similar  contention  is  advanced  with  regard  to 
British  currency,  in  which  price  lists  are  generally  given, 
instead  of  in  the  decimal  coinage  of  dollars  and  cents  which, 
in  one  form  or  another,  has  been  adopted  throughout  the 
three  Americas.  Catalogues,  it  is  complained,  are  generally 
written  in  English,  where  the  language  of  the  countries 
to  which  they  are  sent  is  Spanish  or  Portuguese,  and  con- 
sequently they  are  often  thrown  aside  as  incomprehensible. 


FOREIGN  RELATIONS  AND   COMMERCE       493 

The  linguistic  failing  is  perhaps  that  most  frequently  adduced. 
British  commercial  travellers,  it  is  averred,  do  not  fre- 
quently speak  Spanish  or  Portuguese,  and  the  representa- 
tions of  German  houses,  who  are  often  linguists,  are  enabled 
to  secured  business  with  greater  facility.  The  commercial 
travellers  who  tour  South  America  in  the  employ  of  British 
firms  were  often  Germans,  simultaneously  holding  commis- 
sion from  firms  of  their  own  nationality.  In  financial  matters 
it  is  maintained  that  British  banking  facilities  in  Latin 
America  are  too  conservative  and  inelastic.  Their  methods 
are  honest,  but  not  sufficiently  enterprising.  The  growth 
of  German  banks  in  some  Latin  American  countries,  and 
the  success  they  apparently  attained,  might  seem  to  bear 
out  in  part  this  contention.  A  further  defect  is  that  of 
insufficient  representation  on  the  spot.  British  traders 
are  said  to  be  too  timid  or  economical  in  the  establishing 
of  agencies  and  warehouses,  where  goods  and  prices  may 
be  seen  by  intending  purchasers.  The  Englishman  is  also 
accused  of  being  too  exclusive  in  his  business  methods,  too 
much  addicted  to  sport  and  the  enjoyment  of  the  week- 
end, and  fails  to  mix  socially  with  the  people  of  the  country. 
The  German,  French  or  Italian  trade  representatives  are, 
on  the  other  hand,  described  as  devoting  themselves  con- 
stantly to  the  work,  of  living  frugally  and  associating  them- 
selves with  local  society ;  marrying  among  the  native 
families,  speaking  their  language,  and  generally  creating 
an  affinity  of  social  and  commercial  value.  But  whatever 
may  be  the  real  conditions,  the  fact  is  understood  that 
British  trade  and  finance  do  not  increase  in  their  former 
proportion.  Doubtless  the  decrease  is  in  part  inevitable. 
Business  methods  are  increasingly  strenuous,  and  results 
are  naturally  shared  more  generally  among  the  competitors 
than  formerly.  Trade  rivalry  must  continue  to  grow, 
until  that  point  is  reached  when  nations  become  to  a  greater 
extent  self-providing.  Economic  conditions  after  the  war 
greatly  affected  British  production,  especially  in  1920-22; 
conditions  which,  however,  affect  all  nations. 

The  trade  of  the  United  States  with  the  Latin  American 
republics  is  now  greater  than  that  of  any  other  nation. 


494  CENTRAL   AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

The  preponderance  is,  however,  with  the  ten  northern 
repubHcs,  of  Mexico,  Central  America,  Cuba,  etc.,  as  con- 
trasted with  the  group  of  the  ten  South  American  repubhcs. 
A  great  part,  moreover,  of  this  export  trade  of  the  United 
States  is  in  raw  or  partly  manufactured  articles,  which  is 
less  remunerative  than  that  of  the  finished  articles  of  the 
European  exporting  nations.  The  approximate  values  for 
191 1  were  :  Exports  from  the  ten  northern  repubHcs  to  the 
United  States  £48,000,000 ;  United  Kingdom  £6,750,000  ; 
Germany  £5,000,000  ;  France  £3,500,000.  Imports  from  the 
United  States  £27,750,000  ;  United  Kingdom  £6,700,000  ; 
Germany  £5,300,000  ;  France  £3,250,000.  The  exports  from 
the  ten  South  American  republics  were :  To  the  United 
States  £39,000,000  ;  United  Kingdom  £45,300,000  ;  Germany 
£28,000,000  ;  France  £19,500,000.  Imports  from  the  United 
States  £26,000,000  ;  United  Kingdom  £54,500,000  ;  Germany 
£33,000,000 ;  France  £15,000,000. 

The  interest  of  the  United  States  cotton  manufacturers 
in  Latin  America  is  likely  to  increase  in  the  future,  as  a 
market  for  the  disposal  of  their  wares,  for  the  home  markets 
are  no  longer  sufficient  for  their  output.  The  annual  value 
of  cotton  goods  imported  into  the  Latin  American  markets, 
was  more  than  £20,000,000  sterling,  and  of  this  the  United 
Kingdom  supplied  more  than  50  per  cent.,  and  the  United 
States  only  8  per  cent.  The  American  exporter  may  expect 
to  reap  some  advantage  from  the  Panama  canal  in  this 
connection,  in  the  matter  of  carriage  ;  but  this  will  affect 
only  the  Western  Coast,  Colombia,  Ecuador,  Peru  and  Chile, 
and  not  the  great  countries  of  the  eastern  side  of  South 
America,  such  as  Brazil  and  Argentina.  The  Americans 
have  already  long  enjoyed  an  advantage  in  freight  rates  to 
Latin  American  ports,  the  cost  per  cubic  foot  for  cotton 
goods  from  New  York  to  Buenos  Ayres  being  more  than 
twice  the  cost  from  Liverpool.  The  main  factor  is  in  the 
cheaper  cost  of  production  in  England ;  but  the  future 
determining  factor,  as  shewn  elsewhere,  will  doubtless  be 
the  growth  of  home  manufacture  in  Latin  American 
countries    themselves. 

The  United  States  are  becoming  fully  cognisant  of  the 


FOREIGN   RELATIONS  AND   COMMERCE       495 

markets  offered  by  their  southern  neighbours,  and  their 
diplomacy  in  the  future  may  partially  be  bound  up  with 
the  commercial  aspect.  The  Americans  find,  in  bidding  for 
the  southern  trade,  that  their  rivals  of  Britain,  France,  and 
Germany  are  firmly  established,  with  relations  begun  in  times 
when  the  United  States  was  engaged  in  supplying  their  home 
markets  and  building  up  their  domestic  trade.  The  enormous 
amount  of  British  money  invested  in  the  field  provides  a 
considerable  safeguard  for  British  trade,  and  the  powerful 
banking  and  shipping  interests  of  Britain,  engaged  in  con- 
nection therewith,  are  vastly  superior  to  any  forces  of  a  like 
nature  possessed  by  the  North  Americans.  But  it  cannot 
be  doubted  that  there  is  ample  room  for  superior  organisa- 
tion, and  the  trade  will  fall  largely  to  that  nation  which 
employs  such.  The  Americans  are  clever  specialists,  and 
to  commercial  enterprise  may  be  added  the  "  dollar  dip- 
lomacy," as  the  foreign  policy  of  the  United  States  in  con- 
nection with  Latin  America  has  rightfully  or  wrongfully 
been  dubbed.  The  implied  corollary  of  the  Monroe  Doctrine, 
from  which  it  seems  difficult  for  the  United  States  to  escape, 
is  that  of  responsibility  attaching  to  the  conduct  of  inter- 
national affairs,  and  even  of  domestic  matters,  of  the  small 
Central  American  republics,  and  possibly  of  Mexico — 
territories  lying  north  of  the  Panama  canal  and  the  massive 
mainland  of  South  America.  But  with  a  sensitive  people 
such  as  the  Latin  Americans,  any  assertion  of  authority  or 
hegemony  by  the  United  States  is  immediately  resented,  and 
if  exercised  would  be  inimical  to  trade  relations.  The 
problem  for  the  United  States  is  not  an  easy  one,  involving  as 
it  does  on  the  one  hand  the  necessit}^  for  some  moral  inter- 
vention or  mentorship,  and  on  the  other  the  desire  for  pre- 
dominance in  trade.  The  larger  republics  of  South  America 
are  not  likely  at  any  time  to  be  subject  to  any  dictation 
on  the  part  of  the  United  States,  whom  they  are  enabled  to 
meet  on  terms  of  practical  equality  in  certain  essential 
respects.  The  influence  of  the  United  States  pohtically, 
upon  the  turbulent  element  of  Central  America,  can  scarcely 
be  regarded  as  other  than  a  useful  factor. 

A  useful  and  active  institution,  as  regards  the  intercourse 


496  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 

of  the  North  and  South  American  republics,  is  the  Pan- 
American  Union,  an  organisation  of  American  internation- 
ahsm,  which  perhaps  has  no  counterpart  elsewhere.  The  head- 
quarters of  the  Union  are  situated  at  Washington,  and  it 
is  maintained  by  all  the  Latin  American  republics,  from 
the  United  States  and  Cuba  in  the  north  to  Chile  and 
Argentina  in  the  south,  upon  a  basis  of  contribution  in 
ratio  of  population.  It  maintains  an  important  staff  of 
international  experts  in  commerce,  law,  economics,  trade, 
and  statistics,  with  compilers,  editors,  special  writers,  and 
investigators,  who  are  engaged  in  spreading  information 
over  both  hemispheres,  as  concern  the  potentialities  and 
resources  of  Latin  America.  The  building  in  Washington  is 
situated  near  the  various  American  state  departments,  and 
represents  an  investment  of  £200,000.  Publications  are  made 
by  pamphlets  and  leaflets  describing  in  detail  each  one  of  the 
Latin  American  countries,  in  English,  Spanish,  Portuguese, 
and  French,  and  the  "  Monthly  Bulletin  "  issued  by  the 
Union  is  a  pubUcation  of  considerable  economic  and  geo- 
graphical value,  replete  with  interesting  matter  and  illus- 
trations. For  1912  more  than  1,000,000  pamphlets  were 
issued,  and  10,000  letters  per  month  written  to  all  parts 
of  the  world,  and  the  contributions  for  maintenance  had 
increased  in  five  years  from  £10,000  per  annum  to  £25,000. 
Due  partly  to  the  work  of  the  Union  it  is,  that  the  trade 
of  the  United  States  with  Latin  America  is  mcreasing  in  a 
rapid  ratio.  In  Great  Britain  there  is  no  institution,  remark- 
able as  it  may  seem,  of  the  nature  of  the  Pan-American  Union. 
A  feature  of  British  investment  in  Latin  America  is  its 
persistence  even  in  the  face  of  risk  of  losses.  Notwith- 
standing that  merchants  and  bondholders  have  been  cheated 
on  numerous  occasions,  that  debts  and  loans  have  been 
frequently  repudiated  and  obhgations  unfulfilled,  British  gold 
is  always  ready  to  subscribe  for  stock  and  shares  in  those 
remote  lands.  Losses  are  soon  forgotten,  especially  when 
salved  and  offset  by  rich  successes.  In  some  instances,  also, 
British  and  other  foreign  bankers  and  investors  are  ready 
to  lend  money  to  Latin  .American  states,  as  to  other  remote 
lands,  regardless  of  the  morality  of   the   matter.     Public 


FOREIGN  RELATIONS   AND   COMMERCE       497 

debts  have  been  built  up  in  some  Latin  American  countries 
under  this  system,  in  some  cases,  which  ought  not  to  have 
been  incurred. 

The  educated  EngHshman  who  arrives  in  Latin  America 
must  generally  assume  the  prestige  as  well  as  the  burden 
of  his  empire,  for  he  is  among  a  race  of  ideahsts  :  "La 
Gran  Bretana "  and  "  Inglaterra"  are  names  of  lasting 
power.  That  a  man  is  an  "  Ingles  "  is  to  stamp  him  a  being 
worthy  of  distinction  and  favour.  The  British  word  has 
been  always  the  British  bond  in  Latin  America  :  the  "  palabra 
de  Ingles  "  has  passed  into  a  byword.  The  Frenchman  may 
command  the  deserved  admiration  for  art  and  culture  which 
his  country  has  earned,  the  German  may  be  the  recipient  of 
attention  from  his  faculty  of  entering  into  local  social  life 
and  for  his  pushing  commercial  qualities,  the  Americano 
from  the  United  States  may  begin  to  reflect  some  prestige 
from  the  power  and  wealth  of  his  great  country,  but  it  is 
for  the  Englishman  the  pecuhar  regard  is  entertained : 
the  history  of  his  country  and  the  character  of  whose  nation 
have  pervaded  the  world.  The  EngUshman  in  Latin 
America  is  still  to  a  certain  extent  a  "  milord."  He  comes 
for  great  enterprises  ;  his  pockets  are  always  overflowing 
with  silver,  which  he  is  supposed  to  dispense  liberally.  The 
traits  of  impartiality  and  general  commercial  rectitude  of 
Great  Britain  have  been  the  cause.  Furthermore,  English- 
men who  travel  or  reside  in  Latin  American  countries 
are  generally  men  not  falling  below  a  certain  standard  of 
education,  and  if  not  always  of  independent  means,  they 
have  come  as  representatives  of  wealthy  firms,  companies, 
or  syndicates.  They  are  managers  of  branch  houses, 
engineers,  travellers,  sportsmen,  financiers.  The  lower- 
class  Briton  is  rarely  encountered,  as  is  the  case  with  im- 
migrants from  other  European  and  North  American  countries. 
There  has  been  no  influx  of  poor  class  immigrants  from  Britain. 
England  is  the  country  which  in  great  part  has  financed 
railways,  and  railways  in  the  Latin  American  countries  are 
things  which  come  far  closer  to  the  heart  of  the  dweller 
than  is  conceivable  in  England,  France,  or  Germany.  An 
individual  who  builds  a  railway  in  South  America  is  regarded 

II 


49^  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

as  a  benefactor.  No  honour  is  too  great  for  him.  His 
praises  are  sung  in  the  Press,  he  is  toasted  at  pubhc 
banquets,  he  is  a  Napoleon,  a  world  conqueror.  He  has 
"  united  our  beloved  patria  with  those  bands  of  steel  which 
carry  civilisation  in  their  path,"  as  the  sentiment  is  generally 
expressed.  The  German  and  the  Frenchman,  on  the  other 
hand,  are  generall}^  engaged  in  much  smaller  enterprises,  and 
display  a  less  liberal  method  of  conducting  business,  and,  with 
the  Italians,  they  make  money  out  of  the  country  rather  than 
bring  it  in.  German  hardware  stores  and  other  shops,  and 
French  haberdashers  and  tailors  are  freely  encountered  in  the 
towns  of  Mexico  and  South  America,  along  with  Spanish 
and  Italian  grocers,  restaurant  keepers,  hotel  proprietors — 
all  valuable  agents  in  the  growing  communities,  but  of  less 
standing  than  those  foreigners  who  conduct  banks,  great 
wholesale  establishments,  build  railways,  open  mines,  and 
plant  great  sugar,  cattle,  and  cotton  estates. 

The  American,  or  Nortcamericano,  as  he  is  termed  in  South 
America — whose  people  regard  themselves  as  equally 
entitled  to  the  name  American,  and  so  add  the  qualifying 
"  norte  "  or  "  north  "  to  their  neighbours  of  the  United 
States — is  enjoying  a  growing  prestige  somewhat  after  the 
British  kind,  but  which  is  not  likely  to  reach  the  same 
intensity.  Indeed,  the  Americano  enjoys  often  a  "  reflected 
glory  "  from  the  Ingles,  with  whom  at  times  he  is  confounded, 
due  to  some  similarity  of  appearance,  and  of  course  a  com- 
mon language.  The  American  qualities  of  energy  and  the 
fame  of  their  wondrous  achievements  in  the  mechanical 
world  are  fully  acknowledged,  but  it  is  recognised  that  the 
Englishman  belongs  to  an  older  society,  that  he  comes  of 
a  race  of  greater  refinement,  whilst  the  character  of  the 
American  is  less  fully  developed  along  those  lines.  There 
is  no  vainglory  in  recording  the  circumstance  :  only  an 
historical  condition.  Such  are  or  have  been  the  conditions 
attending  foreigners  and  their  relations  with  the  Latin 
American  people,  although  growing  changes  may  tend  to 
banish  older  traditions  and  distinctions. 

There  are  some  indications  of  a  growth  of  commercial 
relations  between  Japan  and  Latin  America.     A  Japanese 


FOREIGN   RELATIONS  AND  COMMERCE       499 

company  obtained  a  concession  for,  and  has  established  a 
business  in  the  fisheries  off  the  Mexican  Pacific  coast,  and 
it  is  possible  that  operations  may  be  extended  to  Peru  and 
Chile.  A  syndicate  from  Tokio  is  engaged  in  sending 
Japanese  emigrants  to  Brazil,  where  colonies  are  in  process 
of  formation.  It  is  probable  that  emigration  is  Hkely 
to  increase,  and  the  obtaining  of  an  industrial  foothold 
by  Japanese  in  Central  and  South  America  is  an  element  to 
be  reckoned  with.  Such  a  development  would  doubtless 
be  regarded  by  the  United  States  as  antagonistic  to  their 
general  view,  which  is  to  conserve  America  free  from  an 
Asiatic  element.  Statements  in  1912  that  Japanese  had 
acquired  coaling-stations  and  other  possessions  on  the 
Mexican  coast,  were  met  with  acute  enquiries  in  the  United 
States.  The  growth  of  nitrate  exports  from  Chile  to  Japan 
is  an  evidence  of  the  desire  of  that  country  to  benefit  by  the 
resources  of  the  New  World. 

The  economic  immaturity  of  Latin  America  was  for  many 
years  reflected  in  the  system  and  conditions  of  currency  ; 
conditions  which  remain  to  a  large  extent  among  the  more 
backward  republics.  Argentina  has  in  the  past  suffered 
greatly  from  depreciated  currency.  In  the  period  of  so- 
called  prosperity  between  1881  and  1890,  bank-notes  were 
issued  in  great  quantities,  especially  under  the  Free  Banking 
Law  which  obtained  during  that  period,  which  allowed 
provincial  banks  to  issue  notes,  borrowing  specie  abroad 
for  deposit  with  the  national  government  as  security.  The 
country  was  at  that  time  flooded  with  hypothecary  bonds 
or  cedulas.  The  government  sold  the  specie  and  the  pro- 
ceeds were  largely  squandered.  The  financial  crash  which 
came  upon  the  republic  as  a  result  of  such  operations,  was 
followed  by  the  assumption  of  responsibility  for  these  foreign 
loans  by  the  national  government,  and  the  establishment  of 
a  gold  guarantee,  which  fixed  and  ensured  the  value  of 
the  paper  money  at  44  cents,  equal  to  twenty-one  pence, 
for  every  paper  peso  or  dollar,  which  it  now  enjoys.  The 
conversion  fund  set  aside  for  the  redemption  amounted  in 
1908  to  £40,000,000.  Thus  the  paper  currency  forms  a  large 
part  of  the  internal  debt.     The  credit  of  the  country  has 


500  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 

been  established,  and  the  repubUc  regularly  effects  a  large 
annual  amortisation  of  its  public  debt.  In  Brazil  fluctua- 
tions in  the  paper  currency  have  caused  heavy  loss  and 
inconvenience  in  commercial  operations ;  and  as  in  the  case  of 
Argentine  funds  have  been  created  for  purposes  of  guarantee 
and  redemption.  In  Colombia  the  depreciation  of  paper 
currency  at  times  reaches  ludicrous  proportions,  a  gold 
dollar  occasionally  having  been  the  equivalent  of  225  paper 
dollars.  In  Peru,  Ecuador,  and  Venezuela  the  gold  standard 
has  been  adopted  and  the  British  pound  sterhng  is  legal 
tender,  giving  stability  to  the  currency.  In  Mexico  the 
value  of  the  dollar  is  also  fixed. 

Among  the  future  elements  which  may  affect  the 
foreign  relations  of  Latin  America,  is  that  of  the  develop- 
ment of  naval  armaments.  The  growth  of  South  American 
navies  has  generally  been  watched  from  Europe  and  the 
United  States  with  unconcern  ;  more  recently  tinged  with  a 
realisation  of  latent  possibilities.  In  some  cases,  as  with 
the  navies  of  Argentina,  Brazil,  and  Chile,  large  sums  of 
money  have  been  spent  upon  warships  ;  in  others  the  efforts 
towards  naval  armament  have  been  merely  in  the  nature  of 
nominal  completing  of  national  institutions,  and  have  been 
represented  by  more  or  less  nondescript  craft.  As  a  race 
the  Latin  American  people  do  not  possess  the  particular 
ability  of  a  sea-faring  people.  They  are  neither  natural 
sailors  nor  expert  mechanics — a  combination  of  which 
callings  underlies  modern  sea-power.  They  lack  the  talent 
of  organisation  and  rigid  upkeep  of  detail  which  is  the  life 
of  a  navy.  When  the  stimulus  of  novelty  is  gone,  dilapida- 
tion tends  to  set  in.  It  would  almost  seem  that  nature  had 
intended  that  the  Latin  American  people  should  be  relieved 
of  the  burden  of  naval  armaments,  which  originated  among 
island  people,  and  can  never  reach  the  same  standard  with 
continental  nations,  to  whom  they  are  not  a  vital  necessity. 
Sea-power  was  a  gro\vth  of  Britain,  and  in  its  purest  form  is 
British,  and  imitated  even  by  European  continental  powers, 
or  the  United  States,  is  probably  but  a  development  which 
precedes  disuse  or  decay.  That  so  exotic  a  growth  should 
be  expected  to  flourish  in  South  America  cannot  be  regarded 


FOREIGN   RELATIONS   AND   COMMERCE     501 

as  natural.  The  growth  of  sea-power  in  Latin  America,  is 
the  result  of  inter-republican  relations  to  a  greater  extent 
than  the  necessity  for  protection  against  outside  menace. 
In  the  case  of  the  war  of  the  Pacific,  of  last  century,  the 
possession  of  a  single  ironclad  turned  the  whole  tide  of 
battle.  Yet,  once  questions  of  boundary  are  settled,  it 
is  difficult  to  see  what  matters  of  contention  need  arise 
between  the  Latin  American  republics.  The  growth  of 
Pan-American  ideas  tends  towards  the  adjustment  of 
differences  pacifically.  If  the  time  should  come  for  over- 
populated  European  nations  to  cast  envious  eyes  upon 
unoccupied  territory,  then  Latin  Americans  would  be  called 
upon  to  protect  their  integrity  ;  and  what  the  future  holds 
in  store  in  this  respect  it  is  impossible  to  forecast.  But  it 
is  doubtful  if,  in  the  event  of  an  organised  attack,  their 
naval  armaments  would  be  of  much  benefit  to  the  republics. 
Pirate  nations  from  Europe  would  be  well  armed  before 
attempting  such  conquest  ;  and  the  strength  of  the  Latin 
American  people  would  be  rather  in  land  warfare  by  guerilla 
methods,  to  which  those  regions  lend  themselves. 

The  essentials  for  a  naval  efficiency  are  a  sea-faring  popu- 
lation and  good  natural  harbours,  and  the  Latin  American 
republics  do  not  generally  possess  these  conditions.  Argentina 
is  a  land  favoured  by  nature  in  many  respects,  but  there 
is  no  natural  harbour  or  vital  centre  capable  of  sheltering 
the  navy,  and  the  republic  has  no  sea-faring  population. 
Buenos  Ayres  possesses  no  harbour  that  could  be  regarded  as 
a  naval  centre,  except  Bahia  Blanca,  which  lies  500  miles 
away  from  the  capital.  The  country  possesses  a  very 
extensive  coastline,  but  nature  has  provided  it  with  few 
indentations,  such  as  true  maritime  nations  require  for  their 
sea  traffic.  Brazil  is  better  situated  in  this  respect,  with  one 
of  the  finest  harbours  in  the  word,  that  of  Rio  de  Janeiro, 
whose  bay  could  maintain  a  fleet  as  large  as  that  of  Britain. 
But  Brazil  has  an  enormous  coasthne  and  no  maritime 
population  hkely  to  rank  as  a  defensive  element.  The 
gravest  difficulty  to  successful  sea-power  in  Brazil  is  the 
lack  of  discipline  and  the  menace  of  insubordination  A 
navy  which  may  murder  its  officers  and  turn  its  guns  upon 


502  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH  AMERICA 

its  own  capital  is  of  doubtful  calibre  ;  and  this  occurred 
a  few  years  ago  in  Brazil,  where  the  Latin  American  revolu- 
tionary spirit  was  carried  to  shipboard.  On  the  Pacific 
side  of  the  South  American  continent  conditions  vary. 
Chile  is  the  most  efficient  naval  power  in  Latin  America. 
The  republic  possesses  a  maritime  element  in  her  population 
sufficient  for  naval  purposes,  and  has  naval  traditions  of 
some  value,  such  as  are  not  possessed  by  her  neighbours. 
The  Chilean  sailor  is  a  good  sea-fighter,  and  the  navy  owes 
much  of  its  spirit  to  association  with  Britain.  It  cannot 
be  said  that  Chilean  seaports  are  such  as  to  warrant  the 
extensive  development  of  naval  power ;  for  throughout 
the  long  coastline  safe  and  commodious  harbours  are  few. 
Peru  in  the  past  has  been  the  rival  of  Chile  on  the  Pacific 
coast,  and  in  naval  matters,  and  has  to  her  credit  some  fine 
episodes  and  traditions,  which  redeem  her  from  entire 
nullity  in  matters  of  the  sea.  It  was  upon  the  Pacific 
coast  that  the  first  clash  of  ironclads  occurred  ;  and  the 
fame  of  their  Peruvian  and  Chilean  commanders  has  gone 
down  to  history.  But  the  Peruvians  cannot  be  described 
as  a  sea-faring  people,  or  as  possessing  the  stamina  or 
knowledge  necessary  to  maintain  a  powerful  navy.  Nor 
does  the  country  possess  harbours  which  could  lead  to  the 
development  and  maintenance  of  warships.  Similar  con- 
ditions hold  good  with  Ecuador  and  Colombia  to  the  north. 
As  regards  the  northern  coast  of  South  America,  upon  the 
"Mediterranean  "  of  America,  neither  Colombian  or  Vene- 
zuela have  conditions  or  capabilities  requisite  for  the  growth 
or  maintenance  of  sea  power,  whether  as  regards  their 
people  or  their  seaports.  Mexico  on  the  Pacific,  with  the 
exception  of  Acapulco,  has  few  good  harbours,  and  on  the 
Caribbean  sea  Vera  Cruz  is  artificially  protected  from  gales  ; 
she  is  not,  moreover,  a  sea-faring  people,  and  has  not 
developed  nor  is  likely  to  develop  a  navy.  As  regards  the 
five  republics  of  Central  America,  they  are  so  far  a  negligible 
quantity  in  respect  of  naval  armaments. 


SOCIOLOGY   AND   FUTURE  503 


CHAPTER    XVI 
SOCIOLOGY    AND    FUTURE 

The  future  of  the  Latin  American  people,  regarded  from  a 
sociological  and  democratic  standpoint,  has  been  com- 
paratively Uttle  studied.  A  whole  continent  and  a  sub- 
continent, embracing  the  larger  half  of  the  area  of  the  New 
World,  with  a  population  of  nearly  100,000,000  people  and 
practically  a  single  social  system,  lies  waiting,  for  good  or 
evil,  the  moulding  force  of  modern  life. 

The  primary  reflection  aroused  in  the  mind  of  the  impartial 
student  might  well  be  one  of  astonishment  that  a  region 
so  vast,  so  abundantly  endowed  with  natural  resources, 
owning  illimitable  areas  of  public  lands,  should  shelter  a 
population  relatively  so  poor  and  backward.  The  picture 
presented  by  Latin  America,  viewed  from  its  darker  side, 
is  that  of  a  community  surrounded  by  inexhaustible  natural 
wealth,  but  composed  of  a  great  bulk  of  poor  and  humble 
people,  mainly  iUiterate,  owning  practically  nothing  of  the 
soil  upon  which  they  were  born,  with  a  handful  of  a  governing 
class  who  practically  monopohse  the  wealth  and  education 
of  the  country.  The  diet  of  this  great  poor  class  is  of  the 
most  meagre  ;  their  dwellings  and  daily  surroundings  the 
most  primitive  ;  their  dress  insufficient  to  protect  them  from 
the  chmate  ;  their  right  as  citizens  ignored  in  great  part. 
Their  governance  is  in  the  hands  of  self-seeking  politicians 
or  mihtary  despotisms,  who  have  come  into  power  by  the 
misuse  of  the  ballot  box  and  the  aid  of  the  sword.  They  are 
regarded  as  mere  producers  of  agricultural  wealth  for  their 
betters,  and  as  food  for  powder  in  political  struggles. 
Their  national  public  works  are  provided  by  foreign  capital, 
whose     ahen    shareholders    reap    the    dividends    accruing 


504  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 

therefrom.  Their  only  means  of  building  a  railway,  or 
opening  a  bank  or  a  mine,  is  by  appealing  to  the  moneyed 
class  of  foreign  countries  and  to  the  cosmopolitan  financier. 
They  live  in  a  country  where  nature  has  provided  a  mine 
for  every  inhabitant,  a  farm  for  every  peasant,  but  their 
mines  and  lands  are  owned  by  domestic  or  foreign 
capitalists.  These,  in  their  extreme,  are  the  conditions 
sociologically. 

This  sombre  picture  is  not  the  one  generally  regarded. 
To  glance  at  the  presentation  of  national  conditions  in  the 
presidential  messages  and  statistics  of  the  Latin  American 
republics,  and  to  mark  the  allusions  to  growing  imports  and 
exports,  and  observe  the  array  of  illustrations  of  public 
buildings  and  pretentious  monuments  published  on  every 
possible  occasion,  is  to  imagine  some  splendid  Utopia,  set 
down  in  a  region  of  perpetual  spring,  ministered  to  by  correct, 
if  swarthy,  gentlemen  in  top-hats  and  frock-coats,  where 
prosperity  and  civilisation  follow  as  a  natural  course.  The 
dark  background  does  not  at  first  sight  show  through. 
The  hordes  of  serfs  in  farm  and  mine,  the  struggling  poor 
of  the  sub-tropical  slums,  the  beggarly  Indians  and  half- 
breeds,  and  the  whole  great  army  of  poverty  in  general  is 
not  in  evidence.  The  unthinking  foreigner  notes  the  electric 
lights,  the  stucco  buildings,  the  palms,  music,  the  bewitch- 
ing maids  and  matrons  of  a  leisured  class,  and  other  constit- 
uents of  the  general  atmosphere  of "  Viva  !  "  which  surrounds 
the  Latin  American  world.  The  student  of  sociology  might 
turn  away  from  this  picture  and  pronounce  it  all  hollow 
and  evanescent,  did  he  not  know  that  it  differs  only  in 
degree  and  not  in  kind  from  the  social  conditions  of  his 
own  country,  be  he  a  native  of  even  the  most  advanced 
European   nation. 

Two  paths  lie  before  the  Latin  American  communities, 
whose  selection  might  almost  be  termed  the  lesser  of  two 
evils.  On  the  one  hand  is  the  invasion  of  the  foreign  capita- 
list, engineer,  and  trader,  which  in  its  way  is  a  power  for 
civilisation  and  a  relief  from  the  stagnation  of  social  customs 
which  is  so  marked  a  feature  of  Latin  American  life,  and  an 
antidote  to  local  jealousies  and  fierce  party  strife  ;   matters 


SOCIOLOGY  AND  FUTURE  505 

from  which  almost  any  escape  seems  desirable  to  those  con- 
demned to  experience  them.  On  the  other,  these  agents  are 
the  forerunners  of  the  system  of  industrial  exploitation  and 
commerciahsation  of  the  working  classes,  which  dominates 
the  advanced  European  nations  and  the  United  States.  In 
the  United  States  the  masses  of  the  people  are  just  learning 
that  they  have  been  and  are  being  largely  cheated  out  of 
their  inheritance  ;  that  they  have  the  form  of  democratic 
government,  but  are  really  ruled  by  concentrated  wealth 
and  the  politicians  who  serve  it.  In  Britain  the  people  are 
leading  the  civilised  world  in  demanding  their  inheritance 
of  the  land  and  an  equitable  adjustment  of  the  national 
resources,  by  a  series  of  revolutions  without  bloodshed.  Is 
it  to  be  peaceful  stagnation,  in  a  land  where  nature  almost 
spontaneously  provides  food,  but  broken  by  the  minor 
alarms  of  warring  politicians,  or  is  it  to  be  the  strike,  the 
lock-out,  the  industrial  "  slum, "  and  the  war  between  capital 
and  labour  ?  Latin  America  has  to  judge  between  the  two 
systems,  and  judgment  is  not  easy.  The  civilised  world 
has  yet  to  remodel  its  ways  after  centuries  of  experiment 
and  social  evolution.  Is  it  to  be  expected  that  the  Latin 
American  communities  could  enter  on  a  better  phase  of 
life  without  necessarily  going  through  the  same  experiences  ? 
The  situation  admits  of  discussion.  Society  has  found  that 
the  despotism  of  capitalism  is  almost  as  bad  a  form  of  despot- 
ism as  any  other  :  but  it  is  also  known  now  that  it  is  equally 
a  passing  form  of  despotism.  The  particular  form  of 
domination  is  not  yet  ineradically  rooted  in  Latin  America. 
Enormous  areas  of  territory  belong  to  the  state.  The  bulk 
of  the  population  is  still  plastic,  capable  of  being  moulded 
upon  new  hues,  and  open  to  new  influences.  The  handing 
over  of  great  areas  of  national  land  to  capitalists  and  conces- 
sionaires, and  to  private  ownership  in  other  forms,  can 
readily  be  curtailed.  Probably  the  over-monopoly  of  land, 
or  at  least  of  land  in  large  quantities,  is  doomed  in  every 
advanced  country.  Latin  America  can  avoid  now  the  bitter 
legislation  and  the  matters  of  compensation  or  confisca- 
tion that  later  on  would  be  necessary  to  recover  the  land 
for  the  community,  such  as  will  be  inevitable  processes  in 


5o6  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 

all  countries  unless  a  greater  measure  of  social  justice  and 
logical  organisation  of  life  can  be  brought  about.  (Russia 
is  a  dreadful  example.)  The  Latin  American  republics,  by 
taking  thought,  can  now  assure  the  "  unearned  increment  " 
of  the  land  to  present  and  future  generations.  The  too  ready 
handing  over  of  national  assets  to  foreign  and  domestic 
concessionaires  and  companies,  under  the  plea  of  develop- 
ment, and  the  establishing  of  monopoly  ownership  of  land 
in  perpetuity,  wisdom  will  advise  must  be  curbed.  It  is 
better  to  make  haste  slowly.  Capital  will  always  seek 
investment,  whatever  the  conditions  imposed,  if  the  con- 
ditions are  nationally  wise  and  philosophically  just.  Capital 
cannot  be  hoarded  or  withheld.  The  exponents  of  mere 
capitalism  may  urge  that  the  development  of  the  remoter 
parts  of  the  earth's  surface  cannot  be  brought  about  unless 
capital  is  allowed  to  work  its  will  and  reap  an  untrammelled 
reward,  but  if  so  they  are  mistaken,  and  events  are  showing 
that  a  more  righteous  system  of  commercialism  is  not  likely 
to  be  less  profitable  than  was  the  capitalism  run  riot,  which 
is  now  under  surveillance  all  over  the  world.  Up  to  very 
recent  time  capital  has  been  practically  blind  with  regard 
to  the  real  possibilities  of  labour.  It  has  exploited  without 
nourishing  it.  It  might  have  been  supposed — even  on  the 
principle  of  feeding  and  stabling  a  horse  to  6btain  its  best 
powers — that  capital  would  have  nourished  and  fostered 
labour,  but,  remarkable  as  it  is,  this  primitive  economic 
principle  has  scarcely  been  recognised,  and  very  little  in 
Latin  America. 

It  is  to  be  recollected  that  the  growth  of  democracy  in 
Latin  America  may  bring  changes  that  will  profoundly 
affect  the  foreign,  as  well  as  the  domestic,  capitalist.  Demo- 
cratic legislation  is  already  at  work,  especially  in  the  River 
Plate  republics.  The  taxation  of  the  "  unearned  incre- 
ment "  on  land  has  recently  been  made  the  subject  of  a  Bill 
before  the  Congress  of  Argentina.  Some  of  the  large  landed 
properties  are  more  than  loo  squares  leagues  in  area. 
Mexico  has  nationalised  her  railwaj^s  and  may  bring  about 
changes  in  mine  ownership  ;  Uruguay  is  already  far  advanced 
in    sentiments    concerning    nationalisation    of    resources. 


SOCIOLOGY  AND  FUTURE  507 

In  the  past,  innumerable  concessions  have  been  handed  over 
to  the  foreign  concessionaire  by  the  governments  of  these 
repubhcs,  who  were  often  glad  to  obtain  money  and  assist- 
ance at  any  price.  But  a  growing  democracy  may  protest 
that  it  had  no  hand  in  these  bargains,  and  proclaim  that  it 
cannot  abide  by  them  ;  that  the  increment  from  its  docks, 
railways,  plantations,  mines,  and  public  works  must  belong 
to  the  community  and  not  go  to  form  dividends  for  foreign 
shareholders.  The  growth  of  the  democratic  spirit  is  likely  to 
be  sudden  in  Latin  America  when  it  once  gathers  headway. 
The  people  have  not  the  stolidity  and  patience  of  the  British 
or  the  European,  and  not  the  all-subordinating  business 
instinct  of  the  North  American.  Their  ideas  of  property 
and  of  the  sacredness  of  commercial  contracts  are  far  more 
elastic  than  those  of  older  nations,  and  from  protest  to 
confiscation  might  be  a  relatively  facile  step.  The  foreign 
director  and  shareholder  of  Latin  American  companies 
would  be  well  advised  to  study  the  reasonable  amelioration 
of  life  of  the  brown  employees  who  produce  his  dividends. 

For  the  Latin  American  countries  have  not  been  able 
in  the  past  to  dispense  with  the  aid  of  foreign  capital,  and 
certainly  cannot  do  so  yet.  The  harbours  in  many  instances 
would  still  be  unserviceable,  or  death-beds  of  yellow  fever,  and 
South  America  and  Mexico  would  be  without  railways  had 
not  the  aid  of  foreign  capital  been  invited  ;  and  the  stagna- 
tion of  centuries  would  scarcely  have  been  penetrated  had 
national  efforts  alone  endeavoured  to  work  their  way. 
Foreign  capital,  moreover,  is  neither  better  nor  worse  than 
home  capital.  One  of  the  first  evidences  of  development 
in  any  Latin  American  country  is  the  creation  of  a  native 
plutocracy,  with  all  the  vices  of  its  class.  The  worship  of 
money,  the  deference  paid  to  the  large  landholder  and 
millionaire,  the  luxury,  selfishness,  and  corruption  of  the 
wealthy  is  perhaps  more  marked  in  Latin  America — as  in 
the  United  States — than  in  Europe.  The  name  "  repubhc  " 
itself  is  a  mere  convenience.  There  is  at  present  no  such 
thing.  The  "  res  publica,"  the  public  things,  are  not 
public.  They  are  the  monopoly  of  those  in  power.  The 
new   world   has   not    yet    produced   anything   of   material 


5o8  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH  AMERICA 

superiority  over  the  old,  for  democracy,  following  upon  its 
pronouncement  of  an  idea.  Democracy  as  represented 
by  the  American  republics  in  general,  has,  so  far,  brought 
results  which  have  fallen  much  below  that  condition  for 
which  the  sociologist  might  have  hoped.  The  twin-con- 
tinents of  America,  unstained  by  history,  might  seem  to 
have  offered  a  virgin  field ;  a  step  forward  in  civilisation 
for  the  world.  But  it  was  not  so.  The  American  peoples 
have  reproduced  and  even  exaggerated  the  evils  of  the  Old 
World,  with  small  exception  ;  and  the  disinterested  observer 
will  in  this  connection  be  under  no  illusion  concerning  them. 
A  survey  of  Latin  America  shews  the  condition  of  the  Old 
World  being  repeated.  With  the  growth  of  wealth,  as  in 
Buenos  Ayres  and  other  capitals,  comes  the  growth  of 
pleasure,  of  horse-racing,  gambling,  and  of  deeper  vices. 
The  contrast  between  rich  and  poor  is  accentuated  by  the 
caste  of  clothes — the  Parisian  attire  of  the  rich  and  the 
native  garb  of  the  poor  ;  and  the  holding  of  the  land  by  large 
landowners  acts  against  the  settlement  and  close  cultiva- 
tion of  this.  The  Peruvians  were  ruined  by  guano  ;  they 
became  corrupt  and  pusillanimous  by  the  too  easily  acquired 
wealth  of  the  upper  class  ;  and  their  neighbours,  the  Chileans, 
if  they  are  ruined  by  pleasure  and  corruption,  will  be 
so  ruined  by  the  easy  wealth  of  the  nitrate  fields.  The 
Argentinos  will  fall  by  wheat  and  meat,  the  Brazilians 
by  coffee  and  rubber.  The  possession  of  single  sources  of 
great  wealth,  of  an  assiduous  monoculture  of  any  kind, 
has  the  danger  that  it  may  spell  ruin  in  the  end,  because  it 
is  grasped  by  the  few,  the  bulk  of  the  nation  remains  poor 
and  ignorant  and  tends  simply  to  form  the  "  cheap  and 
abundant  labour  "  of  the  financier  and  his  projects  or  pro- 
spectuses. 

The  Latin  American  people  are  accustomed  to  look  towards 
their  great  neighbour  of  the  United  States,  with  something 
of  admiration  for  the  enormous  material  development  of 
that  country,  and  for  the  rapid  increase  of  population  that 
has  followed  upon  immigration.  But  they  are  not  generally 
aware  of  the  drawbacks  attending  this  rapid  development, 
and  would  be  well  advised  to  study  the  conditions  which 


SOCIOLOGY   AND   FUTURE  509 

have  produced  it,  and  to  sift  and  regulate  them  when  applied 
to  their  own  case.     In  the  expansion  of  the  United  States, 
great  centres  of  industry  have  been  created  by  a  system 
which  has  expended  unbounded  energy  and  ability  in  pro- 
ducing wealth,  but  comparatively  little  in  creating  happiness 
and  nobility.     The  poorest  emigrants  from  Europe  have 
crowded  in  and  have  been  used  as  human  fuel  in  the  furnaces 
of  wealth-production  for  a  plutocratic  class,  whom  they  are 
now  beginning  to  blame  as  the  authors  of  much  misery,  and 
already  volcanic  streams  have  begun  to  flow  from  labour  in 
the  attempt  to  adjust  its  burden.   Strikes,  with  gatling-guns 
and  dynamite  for  arguments,  have  been  the  outcome,  and 
there  is  no  cure  for  the  malignant  fever  except  Providence 
and  the  growth  of  a  nobler  human  spirit.    The  American 
people  have  now  awakened  to  the  danger,  and  are  seeking 
to  curb  the  entrance  of  the  great  stream  of  ilhterate  labour 
from  Europe.  The  Latin  American  governing  class,  as  soon  as 
they  are  able  to  think  rationally — and  many  of  them  are — 
should  consider  the  position  of  the  world,  or  rather  of  the 
industrial  nations  whom  they  strive  to  copy.    At  the  present 
time  the   industrial   nations — the   United  States,   Britain, 
Germany,  France,  and  others — are  rapidly  being  divided  into 
two  opposing  camps,  one  of  which  comprises  the  rich  em- 
ploying class,  directing  labour  and  amassing  profits  therefrom, 
and  more  or  less  blind  to  any  methods  save  profit ;  and  the 
other  the  mass  of  toilers  who  are  obliged  to  sell  their  labour 
for  wages,  and  as  a  rule  are  unable  to  approach  a  civilised 
standard  of  life  upon  that  wage.     This  is  the  condition  of 
life  among  the  world's  most  advanced  communities  in  the 
twentieth    century.     The    Latin    American    people,    still 
plastic  and  semi-barbarous,  should  ask  themselves  if  they 
cannot  reach  their  goal  without  falling  into  the  same  pit. 
It  might  well  be  argued,  especially  in  the  growing  light  of 
knowledge  about  industrialism,  that  the  lack  of  great  or 
exclusive  manufacturing  centres  in  Latin  America,  rather 
than  being  a  misfortune,  is  an  advantage  in  disguise.     The 
mind  of  civilisation  has  been  obsessed  with  cities  and  with 
factories.     It  will  have  to  unlearn.     To  grind  the  face  of  a 
working  class  in  order  to  export  overseas  vast  quantities 


510  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

of  made  merchandise  is  not  necessarily  civilisation.  A  rural 
civilisation  is  now  the  growing  need  of  the  great  industrial 
nations.  Latin  America  has  been  spared  the  phase  of 
machine-minders,  working  among  wheels  and  steam  all  day 
and  crowding  to  their  unlovely  homes  at  night.  It  behoves 
the  rulers  of  Latin  America — if  the  spirit  is  within  them — to 
encourage  the  cottage  industry,  to  discourage  the  factory ; 
to  keep  open  the  land,  to  forbid  the  "  slum."  The  simple 
arts  and  occupations  of  the  natives,  especially  those  who 
lived  under  the  old  pre-Hispanic  civilisation,  have  within 
them  the  basis  of  sufficiency  and  the  simple  life.  Why  foist 
upon  them  the  industrial  customs  of  other  lands,  which  have 
now  been  weighed  in  the  balance  and  found  wanting? 
Humanity,  not  commercialism,  is  the  next  phase  of  the 
world's  progress.  The  upland  Indian  of  the  Andes,  with  his 
little  chacara  or  farm  and  his  hand-loom,  growing  his  maize 
and  making  his  garments,  assisted  in  both  by  his  woman, 
is  happier  than  the  Lancashire  factory  hand,  with  neither 
air  nor  space  to  call  his  own.  Regeneration  lies  within  for 
the  Latin  American  people,  not  from  without,  and  foreign 
gold  will  not  in  the  long  run  prove  a  substitute  for  self- 
reliance  and  homely  energy.  A  spirit  of  kindly  and  intelh- 
gent  co-operation  could  till  their  fields,  dig  their  irriga- 
tion channels,  and  build  their  roads,  were  it  awakened  and 
fostered.  The  homely  communities  already  established 
can  become  largely  self-supplying.  There  are  possibilities 
about  these  remote  Spanish-American  towns  and  villages — 
possibilities  which  wait,  however,  upon  that  period  of  sane 
industry-planning  to  which  the  world  looks  forward. 
They  are  not  possibilities  for  great  industrial  undertakings, 
such  as  tear  a  land  to  pieces  for  the  benefit  of  shareholders, 
and  whose  operations  at  present  are  confounded  with 
"  progress,"  but  possibilities  of  a  quiet  Hfe  under  the  system 
of  interdependence  of  town  and  country,  such  as  will  have  to 
underlie  social  life  in  the  future.  They  are  not  and  never 
will  be  manufacturing  towns,  except  in  the  sense  of  supply- 
ing the  needs  of  their  own  inhabitants.  Nor  are  they 
likely  ever  to  grow  to  unwieldy  size,  with  consequent 
congestion  and  attendant  problems.     There  is  an  air  of 


SOCIOLOGY  AND  FUTURE  511 

tranquillity  about  them  which  is  due  to  the  absence  of  the 
commercial  element,  and  this  is  undoubtedly  an  asset  which 
it  would  be  wise  to  foster,  whenever  a  real  community- 
spirit  may  awaken  in  Latin  America,as  in  any  other  country  : 
a  constructive  righteousness  regarding  the  enjoyment  of 
the  fruits  of  the  earth.  These  lands  so  lavishly  endowed 
by  nature  could  become  self-supporting  and  self-dependent. 
In  the  respect  of  natural  resources  they  are  peculiarly  well 
situated.  In  almost  every  state,  from  Mexico  to  Argentina, 
as  has  been  set  forth  in  these  pages,  all  the  necessaries  of 
hfe  lie  ready  to  hand.  Wheat  and  meat,  fuel  and  stimu- 
lants, clothing  and  building  material,  metals  for  industries, 
and  gold  and  silver  for  currency  require  only  to  be  dug  from 
the  hills  and  fields.  These  states  possess  within  their 
borders  all  the  elements  of  self-supporting  commimities. 
They  might  lead  independent  existences,  based  upon  the 
complete  sets  of  commodities  with  which  nature  has  fur- 
nished them.  They  have  not  to  struggle  against  the  winters 
of  northern  lands,  where  the  soil  is  locked  up  for  half  the 
year.  Their  climate  is  so  benignant  that  several  crops  a 
year  may  be  reaped  with  a  minimum  of  effort.  Vested 
interests,  so  far,  have  only  monopolised  a  portion  of  the 
national  resources.  They  possess  full  knowledge  suihcient 
for  progress.  Among  their  educated  classes  are  engineers, 
lawyers,  and  physicians.  Doctors  of  scientific  and  all  other 
laws  are  more  numerous  in  proportion  to  the  inhabitants 
of  Latin  America,  perhaps,  than  in  any  other  country  of  the 
world.  All  wealth  in  the  first  instance  comes  from  the  soil, 
plus  labour  and  knowledge,  and  their  political  economists 
ought  to  be  as  well  aware  of  this  as  the  most  advanced  of 
Europe. 

Despite  these  advantages,  co-operative  life,  such  as  that 
towards  which  the  world  is  tending,  does  not  shew  any  par- 
ticular sign  of  coming  to  being  in  Latin  America.  The 
cry  is  always  for  European  capital  to  develop  their  resources  ; 
the  libra  esterlina — the  foreign  pound  sterling — is  regarded 
as  their  salvation.  In  the  interior  of  the  continents  there  are 
no  roads  worthy  of  the  name.  The  wretched  mule  tracks 
over  which  pack-trains  and  horsemen  have  stumbled  for 


512  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 

centuries,  scarcely  receive  any  attention,  but  are  left  in 
an  almost  impassable  condition  pending  the  advent  of  rail- 
ways built  with  foreign  capital.  Yet  roads  can  be  constructed 
with  resources  procurable  on  the  spot,  and  good  roads  are 
a  greater  indication  of  civilisation  than  railways.  If  the 
idle  and  selfish  inhabitants  did  but  arouse  themselves  they 
could  build  their  own  roads,  instead  of  which  they  are  often 
content  to  vegetate  in  remote  towns,  priest-ridden,  and  class- 
ridden,  paying  enormous  prices  for  the  carriage  of  goods, 
and  rarely  venturing  into  the  outside  world.  Industries 
on  a  co-operative  basis  are  unheard  of.  The  Latin  American 
people  are  not  an  inventive  or  mechanical  race  :  nor  is  this 
necessarily  their  fault.  They  cannot  manufacture  of  their 
own  initiative  the  intricate  machinery  requisite  for  modern 
industries.  There  is  not  a  locomotive  produced  in  the  whole 
length  and  breadth  of  Latin  America.  They  have  moun- 
tains of  iron  and  copper  ores,  but  cannot  roll  a  steel  rail 
or  make  a  copper  tube.  But  the  knowledge  is  available 
and  the  power  obtainable,  without  necessarily  handing  over 
all  the  benefits  accruing  therefrom  to  domestic  or  foreign 
control.    They  must  develop  home  industry. 

The  greatest  problem  for  the  Spanish  American  countries 
is  the  upraising  of  their  working  classes.  Of  middle  class  as 
understood  in  Britain  there  is  little.  The  masses  consist 
mainly  in  the  huge  bulk  of  agricultural  and  mining  labour, 
formed  of  various  shades  of  the  Ibero-Indian  race.  They 
are  exemplified  in  the  15,000,000  of  Mexican  peons,  the 
2,000,000  or  3,000,000  of  the  Peruvian  Cholos,  and  their 
counterparts  in  Ecuador,  Bolivia,  Colombia,  and  Venezuela  ; 
the  Chilean  rotos,  and  the  workers  on  the  fazendas  of  Brazil 
and  the  estancias  of  Argentina.  How  are  these  people  to 
be  upraised  ?  The  proportion  of  those  who  can  read  and 
write  is  very  small.  In  Mexico,  as  shewn  elsewhere,  it  is 
about  15  per  cent.,  in  Brazil  20  per  cent.,  in  Peru  and  kindred 
countries  it  is  still  lower.  It  rises  in  the  Argentine  republic 
to  about  50  per  cent,  of  the  population.  As  only  those  who 
can  read  and  write  may  vote,  it  follows  that  the  great  bulk 
of  the  citizens  are  disfranchised,  and  the  upper  element  work 
their  will  in  the  governance  of  the  land  and  the  disposal 


SOCIOLOGY  AND  FUTURE  513 

of  its  resources.  The  reply  is  partly  in  increased  education, 
but  by  no  means  wholly.  Education,  whilst  it  awakens 
the  power  of  a  democracy  to  a  sense  of  its  rights,  must  be 
accompanied  by  industrial  reform.  The  conditions  hold 
good  in  whatever  land,  and  are  being  brought  forcibly  to 
pubhc  notice  in  the  most  advanced  communities,  such  as 
Great  Britain  and  the  United  States.  The  power  of  a  people 
to  help  itself  and  to  throw  off  the  oppressions  of  an  upper 
class  is  in  proportion  to  the  stage  of  its  education.  But 
a  wise  ruling  class  in  Spanish  America  might,  profiting  by  the 
lessons  of  more  advanced  communities,  endeavour  to  bring 
about  an  equitable  adjustment  of  industrial  conditions 
simultaneously  with  an  educational  advance  :  so  avoiding 
the  inevitable  conflict  between  capital  and  labour  which 
education  of  the  masses  brings.  Whether  they  will  do  so 
is  outside  the  range  of  prediction,  but  lessons  of  events  in 
Britain  and  the  United  States  may  force  these  morals  upon 
more  backward  nations.  The  Latin  American  republics 
are  essentially  agricultural  communities,  and  the  soil  is  their 
main  source  of  wealth.  They  should  beware  of  building 
up  the  ill-balanced  conditions  of  town  and  country  from 
which  other  nations  suffer.  At  present  they  possess  no 
acute  problem  brought  about  by  the  desertion  of  the  land 
for  the  city.  They  are  not  manufacturing  nations,  depending 
upon  export  trade  of  articles  made  in  factories,  and  suffer- 
ing from  the  presence  of  industrial  "slums"  and  a  deserted 
countryside  consequent  upon  the  system.  Their  statesmen 
and  statisticians  often  deplore  the  lack  of  manufacturing 
industries,  but  it  is  doubtful  if  advantages  would  be  gained 
by  endeavouring  to  convert  the  people  into  a  manufacturing 
community  on  a  large  scale  :  the  Latin  American  labourer 
is  by  nature  a  land-worker,  and  only  with  difficulty  docs 
he  exchange  his  outdoor  occupation  for  the  restricted  life 
of  the  factory.  True  wisdom,  it  may  be  repeated,  should 
encourage  cottage  industries,  rather  than  endeavour  to 
build  up  industrial  centres.  These  communities  are  com- 
posed of  people  whose  wants  are  extremely  simple,  which 
can  mainly  be  covered  by  the  products  of  the  country  well 
within  their  reach,  both  from  the  soil  and  from  their  more 

KK 


514  CENTRAL   AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

or  less  easily  wrought  manufactures.  To  endeavour  to  create 
a  demand  for  the  numerous  and  varied  articles,  such  as 
the  European  and  North  American  people  even  of  the  poor 
class  require,  and  to  induce  them  to  strive  to  purchase 
such  articles  would  be  a  doubtful  service.  The  development 
of  their  life  lies  not  in  the  creating  of  populous  cities  and 
a  more  or  less  artificial  condition  of  life,  calling  for  multitu- 
dinous articles  of  food,  furniture,  apparel,  often  of  a  kind 
meretricious  and  unnecessary,  but  in  a  hardy  self-supporting 
people,  freed  from  their  present  miserable  surroundings,  and 
of  a  rural  rather  than  an  urban  standing  of  intelligence. 
Much  of  the  work  of  the  civilisation  of  European  countries 
will  have  to  be  altered,  and  this  process  might  be  avoided 
in  Latin  America.  In  the  districts  in  Latin  America  where 
industrial  activities  have  become  more  pronounced,  socialism 
and  even  anarchy  are  beginning  to  flourish.  The  somewhat 
rampant  wealth  of  Buenos  Ayres  has  produced  its  inevitable 
scourge  of  a  growth  of  an  anarchistic  element  in  the  city.  In 
the  great  seaports  of  Brazil,  Argentina,  and  in  a  lesser  degree 
on  the  Pacific  coast,  dock  strikes  are  becoming  frequent ; 
the  nitrate  workers  of  Chile  have  long  been  addicted  to 
strike,  and  the  mechanics  and  artisans  in  Mexico  similarly 
assert  their  ideas.  The  more  intelligent  workers  generally 
are  alive  to  the  great  contrast  between  their  own  condition 
and  that  of  the  wealthy  classes,  and  the  dockers  have 
generally  grave  causes  of  complaint.  The  recent  coal  and 
dock  strikes  in  Great  Britain  caused  a  deep  impression  in 
Latin  America.  If,  they  argue,  Great  Britain,  which  has 
always  been  considered  the  home  of  prosperity  and  justice, 
contains  such  causes  for  complaint,  what  must  be  the  truth 
as  concerns  our  own  soil  ? 

The  conditions  of  primary  agricultural  and  pastoral 
industries  in  Latin  America  cannot  be  regarded  as  alto- 
gether sound.  Certain  natural  and  economic  drawbacks 
and  risks  attend  food-bearing  territories  where  one  kind  of 
product  is  cultivated.  The  fact  that  enormous  areas  of 
land  under  wheat,  or  devoted  to  cattle-raising  or  other 
single  products,  are  exposed  to  danger  of  loss  or  deteriora- 
tion, gravely  affects  matters  of   population  and  progress. 


SOCIOLOGY   AND   FUTURE  515 

Argentina  and  Brazil  are  specially  subject  to  the  effect  of 
this  condition.  Vast  interests,  moreover,  intended  primarily 
to  benefit  their  owners  and  to  provide  for  foreign  consumers, 
if  carried  on  to  the  exclusion  of  the  people  of  the  soil,  cannot 
be  regarded  as  natural.  The  first  tax  upon  a  land  must  be 
for  the  benefit  of  the  people  who  dwell  upon  it.  If  they  are 
in  any  way  starved  or  limited  in  order  to  swell  exports  and 
dividends,  the  future  will  assuredly  take  toll  of  the  condition. 
Thus  the  breaking  up  of  vast  estates,  and  the  inauguration 
of  a  more  varied  and  extensive  system  of  cultivation,  to  a 
sufficient  extent  for  by  the  well-being  of  the  population, 
will  be  a  necessary  condition  of  advancement  in  the  Latin 
American  republics. 

It  behoves  the  Latin  American  republics  to  guard  their 
land  with  care.  In  many  of  the  South  American  states 
enormous  areas  of  public  lands  exist,  in  some  cases  unin- 
habited and  unexplored.  "  Our  inexhaustible  wealth  of 
natural  resources  "  is  a  favourite  term  in  dealing  with 
this  virgin  territory,  by  national  writers  and  economists, 
but  their  resources  are  not  inexhaustible.  The  remarkable 
settlement  of  the  United  States,  and  later  of  Canada,  shews 
how  rapidly  such  lands  fill  up.  The  tide  of  expansion  will 
shortly  reach  its  limit  in  those  lands  and  set  towards  the 
unoccupied  spaces  of  Latin  America.  At  present  the 
governments  of  these  republics  are  almost  flinging  away  their 
lands.  Any  concessionaire  who  undertakes  to  build  a  rail- 
way or  a  road,  is  offered  thousands  of  acres  for  every  mile 
of  line  constructed.  Enormous  areas  of  land  are  "  sold  " 
at  merely  nominal  prices.  The  territories  in  the  heart  of 
South  America,  such  as  those  of  Western  Argentina  and 
Brazil,  and  Eastern  Peru  and  Bolivia,  Colombia  and  Vene- 
zuela, enormous  plains  of  cattle-rearing  and  wheat,  cotton 
and  maize-growing  possibilities,  are  of  a  potential  value 
such  as  cannot  be  calculated,  and  to  hand  them  over  to 
foreign  concessionaires  at  a  few  shillings  an  acre — their 
"  market  "  price  at  present — is  an  error  of  economy  for 
which  time  will  bring  its  punishment.  Apart  from  the  land, 
the  sociological  problems  in  the  numerous  states  which  liave 
here  been  considered  as  a  homogeneous  unit,  are  complex 


5i6  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH   AMERICA 

and  difficult :  but  the  future  will  shew  that  one  guiding 
principle  must  be  brought  to  bear  upon  these,  as  upon  the 
economic  conditions  of  all  nations  :  that  of  the  systematic 
and  scientific  organisation  of  the  national  resources  in  the 
interests  of  the  people  collectively. 

It  is  impossible  yet  to  regard  the  Latin  American  nations 
as  permanently  at  peace.  Mexico  started  from  a  long 
period  of  quiescence  under  a  military  dictator  to  murderous 
energy  in  revolution.  At  the  other  extremity  of  the  Latin 
American  world  is  Uruguay,  whose  fires  of  revolution  are 
only  banked.  Brazil  and  Argentina,  rich  with  great  exports 
and  plutocratic  wealth,  have  no  guarantee  against  sudden 
internal  war.  Among  the  lesser  states,  Ecuador  and  Peru 
have  recently  outraged  their  own  elected  presidents,  and  in 
the  case  of  the  former  ruthlessly  murdered  its  ministers. 
The  least  important  republics  are  at  times  the  most  turbulent. 
Irresponsible  and  illiterate  presidents,  as  in  Nicaragua  and 
Venezuela,  have  killed  their  own  countrymen  and  flouted  the 
whole  civilised  world.  Yet  there  is  no  real  reason  why  the 
Latin  American  republics  should  not  be  at  peace.  They  enjoy 
many  territorial  advantages.  Their  people  are  not  like  those 
of  European  nations,  often  oppressed  by  the  presence  of  more 
powerful  and  rapacious  people.  There  is  little  need  for  great 
standing  armies.  Their  wars  are  from  within,  not  without. 
No  one  seeks  to  encroach  upon  their  territory,  and  they  are 
free  to  work  out  their  own  destiny.  Furthermore,  they  have 
no  vast  barbaric  areas  of  people  to  redeem.  There  are,  it  is 
true,  great  unexploited  and  even  untravelled  areas,  but  there 
is  no  Tartary,  no  Mongolia,  no  inert  mass  of  Chinese  on  their 
continent  to  outweigh  progress  ;  no  Russian,  Prussian,  or 
Turk  to  snatch  their  territory  from  them  and  murder  their 
nationality ;  and  consequently  no  Poland  nor  Balkan  states. 
In  no  part  of  Latin  America,  notwithstanding  its  vast  areas, 
is  there  any  portion  of  the  territory  more  than  a  thousand 
miles  from  the  sea — the  highways  of  the  Atlantic  and  the 
Pacific  oceans  ;  and  generally  the  maximum  distances  from 
the  seaboard  are  less  than  half  that. 

The  unification  or  federation  of  the  Central  and  South  Ame- 
rican republics,  or  grouping  politically  of  such  respectively, 


SOCIOLOGY  AND  FUTURE  517 

is  a  subject  which  has  long  occupied  the  attention  of  students 
of  Latin  American  affairs.  At  the  present  time,  whilst 
there  exists  a  growing  solidarity  of  opinion  on  matters 
affecting  their  race  and  common  foreign  relations,  among 
the  Latin  American  communities,  it  cannot  be  said  that 
any  tendency  towards  federation  is  apparent.  The  seats 
of  government  of  the  various  states  are  far  apart,  separated 
by  great  tracts  of  savage  territory  in  most  cases,  often 
unconnected  by  railway.  Each  republic  jealously  preserves 
its  isolation  and  independence.  To  the  foreigner,  the  differ- 
ence between  a  person  of  Peruvian,  Ecuadorian,  Mexican 
or  Colombian  nationality,  for  example,  would  scarcely  be 
apparent,  yet  pride  of  nationahty  is  exceedingly  strong  with 
each.  There  are  arguments  both  for  and  against  the 
possibility  of  combining  South  America  under  one  federal 
control,  such  as  forms  the  administrative  basis  of  the 
United  States  or  Canada.  It  may  be  that  the  existing 
system  tends  towards  more  rapid  development.  Separate 
governments  provide  a  multiplication  of  opportunity  for 
administrative  posts  and  a  greater  incentive  to  action. 
In  Latin  American  society  the  large  number  of  ex-ministers 
or  other  high  employees,  who  have  served  the  state  under 
former  administrations,  and  who  may  serve  it  again,  is 
notable :  this  has  both  its  advantages  and  defects.  It  is  more 
important  for  an  undeveloped  community  to  have  its  own 
social  and  governmental  centre  focussed  in  its  midst,  rather 
than  to  be  governed  from  some  remote  capital,  by  an 
administration  out  of  touch  with  them.  The  growth  of  the 
community-spirit,  and  the  consummation  of  home  rule, 
judiciously  associated  with  a  corrective  paramount  head, 
is  the  natural  and  growing  tendency  of  government  through- 
out the  world.  The  intensifying  rather  than  the  annihila- 
ing  of  local  pride  is  the  element  which  will  lead  to  the  greatest 
extraction  of  the  benefits  of  the  soil  for  its  inhabitants. 
South  America  cannot  be  regarded  as  a  land  of  petty  states, 
such  as  Italy  or  Germany  were  before  unification  ;  the  areas 
of  territory  covered  being  so  vast.  On  the  other  hand 
certain  benefits  might  accrue  from  federation.  Brazil  and 
Peru,  or  Argentina  and  Chile,  under  a  system  of  connnon 


5i8  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH  AMERICA 

political  and  commercial  interests,  would  embrace  the 
continent  from  sea  to  sea,  with  possibilities  of  transcon- 
tinental railways  building,  trade  development  and  settle- 
ment resulting  therefrom.  Between  Peru  and  Brazil, 
however,  there  is  the  barrier  of  different  language.  With 
communities  so  widely  scattered,  federation,  it  might  be 
argued,  would  ensure  greater  security  from  outside  aggression ; 
but  arguments  might  equally  be  advanced  to  prove  it  a 
source  of  weakness,  especially  in  the  event  of  outside  attack 
by  sea.  Under  any  circumstances,  economic  considerations 
are  of  less  weight  among  the  Latin  American  peoples  than 
political  and  personal  ones.  As  regards  the  Central  Ameri- 
can group,  the  former  union,  or  proposals  for  such,  of  those 
states,  were  dissolved  in  bloodshed,  and  their  political  con- 
ditions are  too  disturbed  to  permit  any  forecast  of  their 
future.  In  general  terms  the  system  of  separate  republics 
may  be  said  to  preserve  the  attractive  individuality  of  the 
Latin  American  States.  The  names  of  Brazil,  Peru,  Chile, 
Argentina,  Mexico  or  other,  strike  a  note  of  interest  which 
is  not  conveyed  by  the  mere  conglomeration  of  provinces, 
such  as  those  of  the  United  States  and  Canadian  West : 
and  to  sink  their  picturesque  nationalities  in  a  general 
union  is  not  likely  to  appeal  to  the  Latin  American  states. 
The  growth  of  Pan- Americanism,  and  the  Pan-American 
conferences  which  have  their  regular  sessions  in  the  various 
capitals  alternately,  make  for  good  feehng  internationally 
among  the  numerous  American  repubUcs,  but  scarcely  for 
federation,  or  not  at  present.  What  the  future  holds  in  this 
connection  it  would  be  useless  to  endeavour  to  forecast. 

The  projected  Pan-American  railway,  like  the  Panama 
canal,  when  the  line  may  become  a  reality,  is  generally 
regarded  as  capable  of  important  influence  for  the  future. 
In  order  to  connect  the  existing  railways  systems  of 
Mexico  and  South  America  it  is  estimated  that  the  con- 
struction of  5,000  miles  of  Une  is  required.  The  project 
possesses  no  elements  of  insuperable  difficulty.  Far  more 
extensive  railway  systems  have  been  built  in  other  parts 
of  the  world  ;  and  the  commercial  results  to  be  expected 
are  sufficient  to  warrant  the  expenditure  of  the  necessary 


SOCIOLOGY  AND   FUTURE  519 

capital.  The  Pan-American  railway,  giving  through  com- 
munication from  New  York,  and  all  other  cities  of  North 
America  to  Buenos  Aires,  Lima,  Valparaiso,  and  the  South 
American  capitals  generally,  is  one  of  the  great  railway 
projects  remaining  to  be  accomplished,  and  is  a  matter 
of  extreme  interest,  which  doubtless  will  not  long  remain 
unfulfilled.  International  communication  thus  established 
would  tend,  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose,  towards  improved 
relations  between  the  numerous  South  and  North  American 
republics,  and  a  better  understanding  of  each  other's  life 
and  ideals. 

It  cannot  be  said  that  Latin  America  has  produced,  so  far, 
any  great  features  of  civilisation,  or  anything  new  for  the 
world.  The  Greeks,  the  Phoenicians,  the  Romans,  the  British, 
have  no  counterpart  in  the  great  continent  and  sub-continent 
of  Latin  America.  A  sameness  characterises  the  whole 
Spanish  and  Portuguese-speaking  new  world,  and  nothing 
remarkable  has  proceeded  out  of  it.  The  nearest  approach 
to  the  classic  nations  of  the  Old  World,  in  the  New,  were  those 
peoples  who  flourished  before  Colombus  sailed — the  Incas 
and  the  Aztecs,  and  their  predecessors  and  contemporaries. 
The  splendid  past  of  Central  America  and  Peru  had  its 
classic  temples  and  laws,  which  sprang  from  its  soil ;  and 
a  civilisation  which  might  have  developed  into  a  system 
valuable  for  the  world.  The  present  is  a  time  of  transition. 
In  considering  the  future  of  Latin  America  the  question 
consistently  presents  itself :  How  is  the  race  to  be  considered: 
at  what  point  of  its  development  is  it  ?  Has  it  inevitably 
to  pass  through  a  selfish  and  intensive  industrial  exploita- 
tion, such  as  the  European  people  have  passed  ?  Is  it 
inevitable  that  an  intelhgent  and  Europeanised  people 
must  pass  through  the  industrial  phase  before  any  form  of 
social  equihbrium  can  be  secured,  or  is  there  any  other  way  ? 
It  is  difficult  to  reply.  As  has  been  shewn,  there  is  not 
of  Latin  American  art  a  locomotive  or  steam  engine  pro- 
duced throughout  the  length  and  breadth  of  Latin  America. 
The  French  are  a  Latin  people,  but  the  French  were  also 
original  and  initiative  engineers.  The  Spaniards  were  not 
engineers,  but  they  conquered  other  realms.     The  Italians 


520  CENTRAL  AND   SOUTH  AMERICA 

are  also  Latins,  and  they  conquered  the  realm  of  art.  But 
what  realms  can  the  Latin  American  conquer  ?  They  are 
not  mighty  shopkeepers  like  the  British.  Clearly  they  can- 
not conquer  either  mechanical  science,  or  art,  or  literature. 
In  those  fields  they  could  not  be  more  than  copyists  :  and 
they  have  not  attempted  even  that,  perhaps  wisely.  Thus 
they  cannot  vie  with  Britain,  the  United  States,  France, 
Spain,  or  Italy.  They  cannot  emulate  the  Canadians  or 
the  Japanese  in  their  special  fields  of  advancement.  The 
Australians  have  evolved  a  special  type  of  democracy, 
but  the  Latin  Americans  cannot  copy  that.  What  is 
their  special  mission  then  ?  It  might  conceivably^  be  in 
bringing  to  being  a  newer  type  of  economic  life.  The  world 
has  never  possessed  a  social  system  in  which  one  class 
did  not  live  in  wealth  and  intelligence  with  another  in 
poverty  and  ignorance.  Latin  America  has  the  condition, 
as  regards  native  resources,  which  might  produce  a  society 
more  or  less  in  equilibrium,  without  imagining  an  impossible 
Utopia.  The  future  of  the  Latin  race  rests  to  a  large  extent 
with  Latin  America,  and  it  remains  to  be  seen  how  this 
particular  type  of  American  civilization  will  advance. 

It  is  seen,  from  what  has  been  set  forth  in  these  pages, 
that  the  Latin  American  people  and  lands  are,  in  general, 
still  at  the  commencement  of  their  economic  and  industrial 
development.  The  opportunities  for  outside  agencies  in 
both  fields  are  such  perhaps  as  no  other  part  of  the  world 
offers.  The  Latin  American  people  are  extremely  susceptible 
to  foreign  influence,  and  readily  absorb  whatever  is  good,  as 
well  as  what  is  evil  therefrom.  The  opinion  of  Europe  and 
the  United  States  is  sought  and  quoted  as  in  no  other  country. 
In  no  other  continent  dwells  a  people  so  plastic  and  sensi- 
tive, or  so  recipient  of  the  sayings  and  doings  of  the  monitor 
nations  of  the  world.  The  theories  of  progress  find  an 
intelligent  acceptance  among  the  thinking  class,  which  is 
not  less  receptive  than  the  corresponding  classes  in  Europe 
or  the  United  States  ;  and  could  they  but  bring  such  theories 
to  practical  fruition  their  claim  to  a  high  civilisation  would 
be  established.  They  are  not  people  set  in  their  ways, 
or  arrogant,  stolid,  selfish,  or  stupid,  but  are  grateful  and 


SOCIOLOGY  AND  FUTURE  521 

eager,  and  the  man  with  any  Spanish  blood  in  his  veins,  even 
in  the  most  remote  regions,  welcomes  the  traveller  and  the 
newspaper,  and  looks  to  the  future.  They  have  established 
the  most  excellent  administrative  principles  and  institutions 
which  in  time  should  be  carried  into  practice. 

The  study  of  the  great  region  of  Latin  America,  which  has 
been  undertaken  in  these  pages,  reminds  the  student  of 
world  affairs  once  more,  how  great  are  the  resources  of  the 
undeveloped  lands  of  the  globe,  how  much  remains  to  be 
done  in  their  adaptation  to  the  human  element,  and  how 
considerable  will  be  the  scope  of  society  under  the  more 
noble  and  scientific  development  which  it  is  legitimate  to 
expect  of  the  future.  The  Latin  American  republics  are 
still  young,  and,  despite  the  adverse  elements  which  have 
to  be  overcome,  are  full  of  promise  ;  and  it  cannot  be  doubted 
that  the  extensive  portion  of  the  New  World  covered  thereby 
will  approach  the  period  of  development  which,  sooner  or 
later,  is  the  fortune  of  every  land.  What  form  this  developy- 
ment  will  take  and  what  benefits  will  accrue  from  it  will 
depend  upon  the  present  reading  of  political  and  economic 
world-history  by  those  who  control  the  destinies  of  these 
interesting  and  fruitful  lands,  and  the  way  in  which  they 
discern  the  signs  of  the  times. 


THE   END 


GEOGRAPHIA"  L™'  55  FLEET  STREET.  IHNOON.  t 


INDEX 


Abancay,  200,  219 
Acajutla,  460 
Acapulco,  405 

Harbour  of,  405,  502 
Achocalla  Valley,  294 
Acre  R.,  291 

Territory,  295 
Aconcagua,  317 

River,  302 

Mountain,  332 
Adobe,  346 

Agriculture,  146,  153,  155,  179-80, 
232, 269,  273,  285,  300,  316, 319, 

355.  371.  4" 
Agricultural  colonisation,  180,  319, 

473 
Aguardiente,  30,  loi,  285 
Aguarico  R.,  262 
Aguascalientes,  383 
Aitlan  Lake,  452 
Aji.  415 
Alagoas,  66 
Alcaldes,  202,  283 
Alcoholic  drinks,  116,  156,  224,  278, 

306,  414 
Alfalfa,  153,    156,  160,   193,  223-4, 

233,  268,  317,  334,  371,  399,  452 
Algarrobo  tree,  193 
Alligators,  353,  367 
Alonzo  de  Mendoza,  287 
Alpacas,  284,  286,  296 
Alpine  Lakes,  195 
Alto  Parana  R.,  97 
Alvarado,  451 
Amapala,  456 
Amatitlan  Lake,  452 
Amazon    River,   105-7,   121,  195-6, 

203,  207,    226,   276,  290,  343, 

353-5.  365.  367.  377.  407 
Tributaries  of,  107-8,  122 
Navigable  waterway,    122,  240, 

229-30,  279 
Steamers  on,  123 


Amazon  Valley,  105-24,  197,  291 

Area  of,  105 

Cattle,  112 

British  capital  in,  116 

Flora,  108-9 

Fauna,  108 

Products  of,  110-2,  115 

Rainfall,  109 
Amazonas,  66,  78,  117,  200 

Area  of,  65,  200 

Population  of,  200 

Rubber,  no 
Ambato,  260,  265,  268 

Population  of,  265 
Amsterdam,  84 
Anahuac,  393,  404 
Ancachs,  Mountains  of,    194,    196, 
206 

Scenery  of,  206 
Ancachs,  200 

Area  of,  200 

Population  of,  200 
Ancient  relics,  205,  243,  346,  439 

Ruins,  246,  433-440 
AHCoanco,  294 
Ancon,  205 

Ancient  pottery  at,  205 
Ancud,  303 

Gulf  of,  314 
Andean  Cordillera,  40,  289 
Andes,  The,  49,  52,  61,  106-7,  121, 
127,   155,   184,   190-340,  468 

Chilian,  332 

Colombian,  364,  368 

Eastern,  292 

Earthquakes  in,  294 

Maritime,  364 

Mining  valleys  of,  301 

Railways  of,  295 

Rainfall  on,  354 

Volcanoes  of,  301,  344 
"  Angostura,"  The,  367 
"  An  Imperial  Commonwealth,"  482 


523 


524 


INDEX 


Antilles,  341,  362,  443 
Antioquia,  350,  358-60 

Area,  251 

Population,  251 
Antisana  Mt.,  261 
Antofagasta,  275,  278,   300,   303-4, 
308,  319,  328,  331,  333 

Area  of,  303 

Population  of,  303-4 
Antofagasta  and  Bolivia  Railway, 

330-1 
Antonio  Raymondi,  214 
Apam,  413 
Aporoma,  234 
Apure  R.,  365,  366-8 
Apurimac,  200 

Area  of,  200 

Population  of,  200 

River,  196 
Aracaju,  80 
Araguaya  R.,  108 
Arauco  Railway,  330 

River,  365,  368 
Araucanans,  200,  306,  308 
Arequipa,   193,  196,  200,   203,  212, 
215,  233-4,  279 

Area  of,  200 

Climate  of,  218 

Cotton  in,  239 

Gold  in,  234 

Population  of,  200 

Religion  in,  212 

University,  211 
Argentina,  31,  40,  61,  97,  99,  125, 
173-4,  212,  382,  472-3,  516 

Administration  of  justice  in,  131, 
146,  182 

Agriculture  in,  84,  J27,  134,  146, 

154 
Area  of,  12,  58 
British  capital  in,  160,  168,  170, 

475 
Climate  of,  127 
Commerce   of,    135,    154-5,    i6g, 

491 
Education  in,  131-4 
Emigration  to,  128,  134,  472,  477 
Government  of,   129-31 
Jewish  colony  in,  131 
Lana  values  in,  163 
Law  in,  478 
Leprosy  in,  188 
Libraries  in,  132 
Locusts  in,  158 


Argentina — continued 
Military  service  in,  131 
Mining  in,  165-6 
Newspapers  in,  143 
Pastoral  industry  of,  127,  147 
Petroleum  in,  166 
Population  of,    12,    15,    58,    128, 

133 
Rapid  growth  of,  126 
Rainfall  in,  127 

Racial  composition  of,   128,   130 
Railways  in,  142,  166,  187,  279 
Religion  in,  131 
Revenue,   142,   169,   172 
Social  condition  of,  1 72 
Sports  in,  138-9 
Sugar  in,  157 
Uncultivated  land  in,  48 
Wheat-growing  in,  84,  127,  134, 

154 
Argentina,  Northern  region  of,  159 

Area  of,  159 

Population  of,  160 

Products  of,  160,  162 
"  Argentine  Rural  Society,"  148 
Argentine  Southern  Land  Co.,   161 
Ariari  R.,  367 

Arica,  197,  218,  295,  299,  331 
Arizona,  393,  435 
Artes  y  Oficios,  371 
Artigas,  176 
Ascension,  282 
Asphalt,  353,  373 
Asuncion,  84,  126,  183,  187-8 

Climate  of,  187 
Atacama,  317 

Atahualpa  Inca  Emperor,  219,  244 
"  Athens  of  South  America,"  346 
Atlantico,  351 
Atlixco,  391 
Atoyac  R.,  401 
Atrato  R.,  354,  360 
Atures  and  ^laipures  Cataracts,  367 
Audaray,  234 
Aullaguas,  Lake,  291 

Plateau,  291 
Autos  de  fe,  208 
Avenida  Alvear,  137 
Avenido  de  Mayo,  137 
Ayacucho,  200,  215,  219 

Area  of,  200 

Population  of,  200 
Aymaras,  198,  200,  226,  234,  283 
Azogues,  265 


INDEX 


525 


Aztec  and  Maya  Archaeology,  433- 

440 
Aztecs,  10,  50,  243,  249,  391,  393, 

400-2,  413,  419,  433-440 
Massacre  of,  394,  439 
Aztec  Viga  Canal,  400 
Azuay,  265 

Babahoyo,  265 

Bahia  (or  Salvador),  66,  71,  78,  80, 
192 

Area  of,  65 

Cattle-raising  in,  100 

Diamond  mining,  93 

Population  of,  78 

Products  of,  78 
Baja  California,  385,  427-8 

Minerals  in,  428 

Population  of,  385 
Balboa,  321 

Port  of,  463,  465 
Balsas  R.,  410 

Bananas,    97,    102,  207,  222,    268, 
355-6,  382,  408,  416,  448,  462, 
464 
"  Banderilleros,"  The,  393 
Bandits,  340,  383-4,  431 
Banks,  99,  489-90 
Baquedano  Station,  333 
Barquismeto,  375 
Barranco,  208 
Barranquilla,  350-1,  355 
Beagle  Channel,  300 
Beans,  27,  318,  415 
Beehives,  318 
Belgrano,  139 
Belize,  459 
Bella  Vista,  374 
Bello  Horizonte,  79 
Beni,  289 

River,  276,  279,  291 
Bering  Strait,  243 
Bertholitia,  no 
Bio-Bio  R.,  302,  314 
Birds  and  fowl,   165,  192,   227,  340, 

358,  368,  408 
Birth  rate,  445,  470,  485 
Bismuth,  235,  289,  297 
Bogota,    Santa  Fe  de,   344-5,  351, 
353.  355.  366 

Archbishop  of,  351 

Industries  of,  345 

Population  of,  345,  351 

Pubhc  buildings  of,  346 


Bogotd — continued 

Rainfall  of,  345 

University  of,  350 
Boleo,  422 

BoUvar,  Simon,  346,  362-3 
BoUvar  (Colombian),  351 

Area,  351 

Population,  351 
Bolivar  (Ecuador),  265 
Bohvia,  27-9,  79,  81,  123,  183,  190-1, 
197.    230,    242,   264,    275-298, 
433 

Area  of,  58,  275 

Climate  of,  276-7,  292 

Education  in,  28  3,  298 

Electricity  in,  293 

Exports,  297 

Flora,  286-7 

Government  of,  282 

Imports  of,  297 

Indians  of,  277-8 

Industries  of,  277,  284,  287 

Produce  of,  230,  287 

Railways,  27,  294,  331 

Religion  in,  283 

River  system  of,  290 

Rainfall  of,  292 

Thermal  springs  in,  294 
Bolivia-Argentine  Rly.,  333 
Boli\aa  Railway  Co.,  294,  296 
Bolson  of  Mapimi,  410,  412 
"  Bonanza  "  farming,   172 
Bonitos,  193 
Borax,  296,  331 
Boyacd,  351,  360 

Brazil,  60,  97,  104,  212,  291, 
312,  343,  364,  382,  472-3,  501, 
516 

Area  of,  12,  58,  60 

Agriculture  in,  67 

Climate  in,  96 

Colonies  of,  486 

Education  in,  70-1 

Foreigners  in,  61,  68,  86,  472 

Government  of,  62-5,   104 

Industries  of,  77,  91 

Leprosy  in,  188 

Mining  in,  49,  52,  60,  93-5,    102, 
104 

Natives  of,  69 

Population  of,   12,   17,   58,   60-1, 
486 

Products,  47,  53,  74,  77,  84-92,  95, 
102 


526 


INDEX 


Brazil — continued 

Principal  food,  92 

Railways  in,  79-83 

Regions  of,  66 

Religion  in,  72-3 

Revenue  of,  75,  89,  103 

Supreme  tribunal  of,  64-5 

Trade,  103 
Brazil-nuts,  102,  no 
British   capital,    11,   49,    103,    116, 
157,   160,   168,   170,   178,   189, 
232-3,    271,    290,  296-7,    323, 

327.   355.   358,   364.   398.   419- 
20,    424,    456,    462,   475,    488, 

495 
British  Guiana,  48,  362,  364-5,  373, 

377.  494 

Alluvial  deposits  in,  48 
British  Honduras,  439,  441,  458 

Trade  of,  459 
British  Mazapil  Copper  Co.,  422 
Bucarmanga,  351 
Buen  Aire  Island,  362 
Buenaventura,  352,  355 
Buenos  Ayres  and  Pacific  Rly.,  333 
Buenos  Ayres,  41,  82,  126-7,  128-9, 
132,  134-5.  158,  171-2.  177.  187, 
291,   232,   382,   393,   476,   494, 
501,  519 

Area  of,  129,  135 

Architecture  in,  137,  138 

CHmate  in,  137 

Commerce  of,  135,  171 

Cost  of  living  in,  141 

Immigrants  in,  134-5 

Population  of,  129,  135,  476 

Poverty  in,  141 

University  of,  132 
Buenos  Ayres,  Province  of,  129,  134 

Area  of,  129 

Population  of,  129 

Wool     producing     industry     in, 
154-5 
Bull-fights,  216-7,  39°.   392 

Caballero,  21,  349,  387,  406,  429 
Cabedello,  80 
Cactus,  410 

Giganton,  222 

Organo,  410 
Cajamarca,  194,  200,  206,  219 

Area  of,  200 

Population  of,  200 
Calama,  331,  355 


Calamarca,  129 

Caldas,  351 

"  Calendar,"  or  "  Sun  Stone,"  395, 

435 
Caleta  Buena,  328 
CaH,  355 
California,  393 

Gulf  of,  410 
Califomian  Sierra  Nevada  Rly.,  332 
Callao,  200,  207,  240 

Area  of,  200 

Population  of,  200,  208 

Harbour,  209 
Calle  Florida,  137 
Camarones,  227,  334 
Camocin,  80 
Campeche,  384,  416 
Campo,  The,  150,  152 
Campo  de  Marte,  311 
"  Campo  Santo,"  216 
Cana  de  Guayaquil,  272 
Canar,  265 
Canannea,  422 
Caiiete,  217,  232,  234 

Cotton  plantations  in,  217 

Gold  in,  234 

Sugar  plantations  in,  217,  232 
Canelones,  176 
Cape  Horn,  300,  320 
Carabaya,  234 
Caracas,  363,  369,  375 

Climate  of,  363,  369 

Public  buildings  of,  363 

Railway  in  363,  375 

University  of,  370 
Carachi,  265 
Carahuairazo,  262 
Caraveli,  235 

Nitrate  at,  235 
Caribbean  Sea,  or  "  American  Medi- 
terranean," 59,  341,  343-4,  352, 

362-3,  376,  380,  502 
Carnival  in  Lima,  217 
Cartagena,  341-3.  35i.  355 

Capture  of,  342 

Climate  of,  343 

Harbour,  343 

Negroes,  350 

Population,  351 

Spanish  at,  342 
Cartagena  Railways  Co.,  361 
Cartago,  461 
Casapalca,  235 
Casas  Grandes,  435 


INDEX 


527 


"  Casiquiare,"  The,  367 
Casma,  205 

Castel-Fuerte,  Marquis  de,   287 
Castilloa  tree,  272 

Cattle,  loi,  112,  147,  150-2,  156, 
161,  179-80,  186,  207,  233, 
268,  272,  277,  284,  293,  302, 
316-7,  321,  345,  352,  357,  368, 
372,  378.  416-8,  464,  472,  514-5 
Cauca,  351,  355,  360 

River,  344,  352,  355,  35S-9 
Cayambe  Mt.,  261 
Caylloma,  235 
Cesurd,  66,  104 

Area  of,  65 
Cebollar,  331 
Cedar,  97,  356,  357 
"  Centavos,"  398 

Central  America,  441-469,  473,  495, 
502,  518 

Agriculture  in,    447 

Arbitration  court  of,  443 

Birth  rate  of,  445 

Climate,  444 

Death  rate,  445 

Education,  446 

Foreign  trade,  468 

Governments  of,  446,  469 

Indians  in,  444 

Industries,  447 

Military  service  in,  447 

Population  of,  444 

Religion,  446 
Central  Brazil,  66 
"  Central  of  Brazil,"  80 
Cerro  de  Mercado,  422 
Cerro  de  Pasco,  200,  219,  226,  235-6 

Climate  of,  220 

Mines  in,  220,  235,  238 

Railways  in,  206,  236 
Cerro  de  Pozcani  mine,  289 
Cerro  Largo,  176 
Ceylon,  230 
Chacarilla,  288 
Chacaras,  223,  255,  510 
Chachapoyas,  200,  206,  215 
Chaco  (Argentina),  129,  159-61 

Area  of,  129 

Population  of,  129 
Chaco  of  Bolivia,  291,  293 
Chagres  R.,  464 
Chalco,  Lake,  400 
Chanarcillo,  322 
Chan  Chan,  205,  249 


Chanchamayo,  230 

Chantiles,  455 

Chapala,  Lake  of,  405 

Chapultepec,  Castle  of,  397 

"  Charqui,"  99,  loi,  179,  284 

Charles  III.,  163 

Charles  V.,  Decree  of,  162 

Grant  from,  211 
Chasquis,  194 
Chatham  Island,  273 
Chavin,  Castle  of,  248-50 
Cheops,  Pyramids  of,  436 
Chiapas,   381,   384,   410,   419,   433, 

437 
Chibchas  people,  347 
Chicama,  205 
Chicha,  30,  317 
Chichen  Itza,  437-8 

Ruins  of,  438 
Chiclayo,  200,  205 
Chihuahua,  383,  418,  420,  424 

Population,  383 
Chile,  45,   47,   49,    60,    82,     190-1, 
200,    227,    240,    263,    299-340, 
468,  487,  496 

Agriculture  of,  316-8,  335 

Area  of,  58,  299 

Army  of,  340 

Cathedral  of,  311 

Cattle  raising,  316-7 

Climate  of,  300,  302-3 

Currency,  336 

Education  in,  309 

Floods  in,  301 

Government  of,  304-5,  316 

Faima  of,  340 

Industries  of,  300,  317,  335-6 

I\Iines   of,  49,    317,    322,    328-9, 
335-6 

Navy  of,  335,  502 

Nitrate  beds  of,  47,  204,  208,  300, 
317.  322-3,  335-6 

Population  of,  58,  200,  299,  304-5 

Provdnces  of,  303-4 

Railways  of,  314 

Rainfall  of,  302,  314,  339 

Religion  in,  310,  339 

Revenue,  336-7 

Sections  of,  304 

Vale  of,  314,  333 
Chillo,  269 

Chimborazo  Mt.,  227,  261,  268 
Chimbote,  204 
Chimore,  2yi 


528 


INDEX 


Chimus,  The,  205,  249 

Ruins  of,  205,  249 
Chinese,  199,  264,  327,  381 

Cruelty  to,  199 
Chinchilla,  The,  227 
Chinchon,  230 
Chiquiaguillo,  287 

Gold  mines  of,  287 
Chiquimula,  447,  450 
Chiquitos,  The,  278 

Hill,  282 
Chira  R.,  204 
Chiriqui,  440 

Ancient  relics,  440 
Choco,  359 

Chocolate,  or  Cacao,  218,  229,  239, 
268,  271,  287,  357.  372,  416,  464 
Cholos,     The,     198-9,    202-3,    221, 
223-5,  232,  240,  285,  512 

Agriculture  of,  223 

Customs  of,  223 

Houses  of,  223 

Women,  224 
Cholula,  433,  436 
Choluteca  R.,  456 
Chonta,  235 

Quicksilver  mines  in,  235 
Choqueyapu  R.,  294 
Chorillos,  208 
Chorolque,  289 
Chubut,  129,  164 
Chunchos,  198 
Chuquiapo  R.,  280 
Chuquisaca,  289 
Chuquitambo,  234 

Gold  in,  234 
Church  architecture,  36,  268,  270, 

394 
Church  schools,  72,  215,  283,  350, 

370 
Cinchona  bark,  The,  285,  287,  292 
Circuto,  355 

Ciudad  Bolivar,  365,  368,  373 
"  Ciudad  de  los  Reyes,"  211 
Ciudad  Juarez,  426,  435 
Ciudad  Porforio  Diaz,  426 
Ciudad  Vieja,  451 
Ciudad  Victoria,  385 
Civil  wars,  355,  372 
Clemenceau,  Mons.,  151 
Cliff-dwellers,  435 
Coahuila,  385,  412,  422 
Coal,   49,  205,  235,   271,  286,   290, 

322,  328,  360,  373,  422 


Coast  towns  of  Peru,  217-8 

Chmate  of,  218 
Coatlique,  Idol  of,  436 
Coatzacoalcos,  401,  427 
Cobalt,  235,  289 
Coban,  450 

Population,  450 
Coca,  206,  228,  230,  285,  287,  297 
Coca  R.,  262 

Cocaine,  207,  228,  230,  285 
Cochabamba,  281 

American  Institute,  283 

Area  of,  281 

Population  of,  281 
Cochabamba-Chimore  Railway,  295 
Cocoa,  74,  91,   102,   III,  207,  271, 

273.  285,  352,  356,  448 
Cocoanuts,  456,  459,  464 

Coffee,  47,   68,  74,  77,  84-88,    186, 
207,    218,    229-30,    268,    271, 

274.  297.   352.   355.   372.   37S. 
382,  408,  415,  447,  480 

Fortunes  made  from,  87 
Col  d'Ochomopo,  461 
Colima,  383 

Volcano,  403 
CoUuahuasi,  331 
Colombia  R.,  354 
Colombia,  59,  221,  264,  341-77 

Area  of,  58,  197,  343 

Agriculture  in,  355 

Coalfields,  360 

Education  in,  350 

Exports,  357,  361 

Flora  of,  358 

Gold  in,  52,  358 

Government,  351 

Indians  in,  348-9 

Leprosy  in,  188 

Mestizos  in,  348-9 

Mihtary  service,  347 

Minerals  of,  358 

Population,  58,  221,  348 

Products  of,  355 

Railways,  355,  360 

Religion,  350 

Revenue,  361 
Colon,  374 
Colonia,  176 
Coloso,  331 

Colombian  National  Rly.,  361 
Colombian  Navigation  Co.,  361 
Colombian  Northern   Railway,  361 
Colony,  A.,  484-5 


INDEX 


529 


Colorado  R.,  296,  410,  435 
Colquechaca,  289 
Columbus,  Christopher,  362,  397 
Comayagua,  456 
Communism,  189 
Comodoro  Rivadavaa,  290 
Conchos  R.,  411,  424 
Concepcion,  304,  314,  317 

Cathedral  in,  315 

Population,  304,  314 

Produce  of,  315 
Conde  de  Regla,  396 
Conquistadores,  190,  391,  397,  404 
Copan,  437,  439 

Ruins  at,  437-9 
Copiapo,  303,  336 

River,  302 
Copper,  49,  95,  205,  220,  235,  256, 
288-9,  297,  301,  322,  331,  355, 
373,  419,  421-2,  450 
Coquimbo,  300,  315,  317 

River,  302 
Cordillera     Mts.,     156,      164,     166, 
190-1,  194,  206,  227,   248,  260, 
289,  293,  303,  310-1,  314,  323, 

334 
Blanca,  296 

Central,  195-6.  344,  359 
De  Anahuac,  403 
Eastern,    196,    260-1,    276,    291, 

344 

Maritime,  195-6 

Real,  195,  276,  280 

Western,  260-1,  276,  293,  344 
Cordoba,  41,  129,  143,   15S-9,  476 

Area  of,  129 

Population  of,  129,   143 

Schools  in,  131 

University,  132 

Wool-producing  industry,   155 
Cormorants,  193 
Corocoro,  288,  296 
Coronel,  328 
Corregidores,  2  S3 
"  Correrias,"  118 
Corrientes,  97,  129,  159 

Wool -producing  industry,   155 
Corral,  315 
Cortes  Hernando,  50,  90,  393-4,  397, 

401-2,  404,  434 
Corumba,  81,  84 
Costa,  197 
Costa  Rica,  59,  439,  441,  460-3 

Area  of,  59,  441 


Costa  Rica — continued 

Climate  of,  461 

IMining,  461 

Population,  59,  444 

Products  of,  462 

Volcanoes  in,  441,  461 
Cost  of  li\-ing,  37,  141,  178,  285,  339, 

397-9.  477 
Cotabamba,  234 
Cotopaxi  Mt.,  261,  268 
Cotton,  88-90,   102,   155,   iS(j,   193, 
204,  207,  209,  217-8,  229,  232-3, 
272,   356,   372.   378.   402,   412, 
494 

Factories,  88-90,  98,  238,  402,  412 

Peruvian,  232 
Criollas,  The,  or  Creoles,  17 
Crocodiles,  353,  408 

Babilla,  353 

Caiman  de  aguja,  353 

Caiman  porro,  353 
Cuba,  58 
Cuenca,  260,  265 

University  of,  266 
Cuemavaca,  385 
Culebra  cut,  465 
Cumberland  Bay,  321 
Cundinamarca,  351,  360 

Area  of,  351 

Population  of,  351 
Curasao  Island,  362 
Cushmas,  90 
Cuyaba,  84 

Cuzco,    19^,   200,   214-5,   219,   234, 
236,  2-14,  246-7,  333 

Area  of,  200 

Cathedral,  220 

Population,  200,  219 

University,  211 

Darien.     See  Panama,  Isthmus  of 

Demerara  R.,  377 

Denouncement,  423 

Dcsaguadero  R.,  225,  291,  296,  331 

Diamond  mining,  93 

Diaz,  President,  383,  385,  388,  394, 

420-1,  429-32 
"Doctor,"  A,  40,  71,  310,  347,  387 
Dragon's  Mouth,  The,  365 
Drake,  Francis,  342 
Duran,  267 
Durango,  383,  412,  420,  426 

Cotton  industries  in,  412 

Population,  383 

LL 


530 


INDEX 


Duranzo,  176 

Dutch  Guiana,  378,  494 

Eagle  Pass,  426 

Earthquakes,   54,  258-9,   270,   301, 
314-5,  321,  346,  442,  451,  459 
Easter  Island,  243,  321 
Eastern   Railway  of   Bolivia,   The, 

294 
Ecuador,  58,  60,  191-2,  195-7,  221, 
227,  230,  242,  258-74,  343,  516 

Area  of,  58 

Cholos  of,  223,  243 

Climate  of,  258-9 

Education,  265-6,  274 

Government,  264-5,  272-4 

Indians  in,  263 

People  of,  263 

Population,   58,   19S,  263,   273 

Religion,  266 

Revenue,  274 

Topography,  259-62,  271 

Trade  and  industries,  270-4 
El  Altar  Mt.,  261 
El  Callao,  373 

El  Cristo  de  los  Andes,  310 
Electoral  power,  Abuse  of,  34 
El  Oro  (Ecuador),  265 

Area  of,  265 

Population  of,  265 
El  Oro  (Mexico),  421 

Mining  and  railway,  422 
El  Paso,  426 
Emigration,  470-481 
Encamacion,  187 
Encotnienda  system,  29,  162 
Encomenderos,  162 
Encontrada,  375 
Entre  Rios,  127,  129 

Wool-producing  industry,  155 
"  Era  of  Glorious  Progiess,"  The, 

388 
Escuintla,  450 
Esmeraldas,  265,  267 

Area  of,  265 

Emerald  mines  in,  267 

Population  of,  265 

River,  262 
Espirito  Santo,  67,  80 

Area  of,  65 

Coffee  in,  84 

Iron  deposits  in,  94 
Estancias,  The,  loi,  151,  512 
Eten,  205 


Facatativa,  351 

Population,  351 
Falkland  Islands,  155,  164,  479 
Bishop  of,  214 
Colonisation  of,  479 
Fauna  of,  165 
Flora  of,  165 
Falkland  Island  Co.,  165 
"  Farthest  South,"  320 
Fauna  and  flora,  108,  221-2,  273 
Flora,  292,  358,  407,  410,  432 
Fauna,  340 
Fazendas,  The,  86,  99,  512 
Ferrocarril  Interoceanico,  426 
Fibres,  186,  272,  356-7,  373    414-5 
Flax,  153 
Flores,   1 76 
Flores  Island,  452 
Flotsam,  194 
Fomento,  34 

Fomento  de  Oriente  Railway,  295 
Foreign   capital,  11,  170,  178,  273, 

290,  296-8,  327,  358,  405,  421-2, 

424-5,  432,  503,  507 
Forestal   Land,   Timber  and   Rail- 
ways Co.,  160 
Foreign    relations    and    commerce, 

470-502 
Foreign  trade,  491-500 
"  Forestry,"  99 
Forests,    160,    186,    197,    285,    292, 

314,  356,  365,  367,  410,  450 
Formosa,  129,  161 
Fortalcza,  80 

"  Fratemidad,"  The,   144 
"  Fraternal  Law,"  251 
French,  15,  180,  238,  296,  319,  327, 

362,  376-7,  381,  404 
Fritz,  Padre  Samuel,  118 
Friuts,  97,  102,  162,  181,  186,  207, 

221-2,  229,  233,  268,  273,  292, 

297.  317-8.  336,  372.  410.  41^ 

449 

Galan,  351 

Galapagos  Islands,  259,  273 

Area  of,  273 

Tortoise,  273 
Gamboa,  465 

Garcilaso  de  la  Vega,  231,  250 
Garua,  192 
Gatun,  464 

Gaucho,  The,  of  Brazil,   loo-i,   150, 
391,  417 


INDEX 


531 


Geological  formation,  196,  290,  442, 

469 
Georgetown,  377 

German,  15,  69,  128,  178,  315,  319, 
327,  381,  470-502 

Colonies,  315,  319,  4S4 

Breweries,  315,  336 

Beet  sugar,  356 

Tax,  153 

Imports,  428 
"  Germanisation  of  Chile,"  487 
Giradot,  352-3,  355 
Glaciers,  301,  303 
"  Glacier  Meadows,"  301 
Gohernador,  202 

Gold,  50,  52,  93,  95-6,  102,  166, 
205,  218,  234,  252,  256,  271, 
285,  287-9,  322,  358,  368,  373. 
378,  411,  419-21,  450,  457,  461, 
488 

Alluvial  deposits,  48,  35S-9 
Golf,  140 

Clubs,  140 
Golfo  Dulce  Lake,  452 
Gonzalo,  262 

"  Gossypium    carbardense,"    233 
"  Gossypium  herbaceum,"  232 
"Gossypium    Peruvianum,"    233 
Goyaz,  65,  80 

Area  of,  65 

Gold  mining  in,  93 
Granada,  454 
Gran  Chaco,  127,  129,  155,  184,  242 

Area  of,  276 

Cotton-growing  in,  155 

Population  of,  129 
Grijalva  R.,  410 
Guadalajara,   382,   387,   405,  424 

Climate,  405 

Population,  382,  405 
Guadalupe,  399 
Guajiri  Peninsula,  374 

Coal  deposits  in,  374 
Guauhtemoc,  Emperor,  397 
Guanajuato,  383,  419-20 

Mining  centre,  383,  419 

Population  of,  383 

Shrine,  51 
Guano    192,  210,  239-40,  252,  273, 

508 
Guapay,  or  Grande,   R.,   291 
Guapore  R.,  108 
Guaqui,  282 

La  Paz  Railway,  296 


Guaranda,  265 

Guaranis,  The,  92-3,  184,  283 

Guarayos,  277 

Guasare,  374 

Guatemala,  54,  381,  433,  437,  443. 

448-453 

Agriculture  of,  451 

Area  of,  58,  44  x 

Climate  of,  452 

Forest  growths,  450 

Fruits  of,  449 

Industries  of,  450 

Mining  in,  450 

Railways  of,  451 

Rainfall  in,  452 

Rivers  of,  452 

Volcanoes  in,  441 
Guatemala  city,  450-1 
Guatemala  la  Antigua,  451 
Guaxdare  R.,  354,  365,  367 
Guayaquil,  192,  204,  258,  265,  266-8 

Gulf  of,  258-9 

Harbour  of,  266 

Railway  of,  266 

Streets  of,  266 

University  of,  266 

Unsanitary  condition  of,  267 

Rainfall  of,  267 

Rice  cultivation  in,  268 

Population  of,  265 
Guaj'as,  265 

Area  of,  265 

Population  of,  265 
Guayas  R.,  258,  260,  262,  267 

Steamers  on,  260,  262 
Guaymas,  405 
Guayos,  The,  278 
Guayra  Falls,  97 
"  Guayras,"  288 
Guerrero,  420 
Guiana,  378 

Brazilian,  47 

Dutch,  378 

French,  378 
Guija  Lake,  452 
Guyanas,  The,  341,  377-8 

Area  of,  377 

Exports  of,  378 

Fauna  of,  3 78 

Government  of,  377 

Imports  of,  378 

Language  of,  37S 

Population  of,  377 

Revenue  of,  378 


532 


INDEX 


Haciendas,  31,  38,  399,  407,  411-2 
Hay  Pauncefote  treaty,  466 
Hectares,  290 
Henequen,  or  sisal  hemp,  272,414,428 

Fortunes  made  from,  415 
Hidalgo,  394-5.  413 
Hides,  180,  274,  297,  315,  357,  3G8, 

372.  464 
Holy  Office  of  the  Inquisition,  342 
"  Home  Rule,"  482,  517 
Honda,  352 

Rapids,  355 
Honduras,    58,   380,    439-40,    456-8 

Area  of,  58,  441 

Population,   58,   444 

Products  of,  457-8 
Horse-racing,  138-9,  216-7,  392.  508 
Horses,  318,  321,  372,  417-8 
Huacho,  205,  233 

Hog-breeding  in,  205 
Huallaga  R.,  107,  196 
Huallanca,  235 

Quicksilver  mines  in,  235 
Huanani,  289 
Huancavelica,  200,  219-20,  234 

Area  of,  200 

Gold  in,  234 

Population  of,  200 

Quicksilver  mines  of,  51,  220,  235 
Huancayo,  219,  221 

Market  of,  221 
Huanchaca,  289,  331 

Silver  mines  of,  289,  331 
Huandoy  Peak,  196 
Huantajaya,  327 

Silver  mines  of,  327 
Huanuco,  200,  206,  215,  234 

Area  of,  200 

Gold  in,  234 

Population  of,  200 

Viejo,  249 
Huanuni,  288 
Huaras,  204 
Huaraz,    200,   205,    207,    215,    220, 

235.  248 
Huarmey,  205 
Huascaran  Mt.,   194,   196 
Huaylas,  Valley  of,  204,  206,  235 

Coal  in,  204 

Railway  in,  204 

Silver  mines  in,  205,  235 
Huayna  Capac,  246,  289 
Huayna  Potosi,  276 
Huehuetemango,  450 


Huigra,  268 
Huila,  351 
Huitotos,  The,  120 
Humadea  R.,  366 
Humbolt,  435 
Humbolt  current,  191 
Hydro-electric   stations 
Hydrographic    system, 
290-1,    296,    302, 
371,  410,  412 


.    424 
225, 

353-4. 


262, 
367, 


IBAQUE,  351 

Ibarra,  265 

lea,  200,  218,  232-4,  237 

Cotton-growing  in,  232-3,  239 

Gold  in,  234 
Ichu,  222,  224 
Iguazu  Falls,  97 
Ilex  Paraguayensis,  185 
Illampu  Peak,  293 
Illimani  Peak,  196,  276,  289,  296 
Ilo,  218 
Imataca,  368,  373 

Ore  Co.,  373 
Imbabura,  261,  265 
Import  tax,  153,  1S5 
"  Incahuasi,"  249 
Incas,  The,  47,  105,  190,  198,  206, 
211,  224,   231-2,  242-257,  270, 
278,  288,  334,  439,  519 

Administration  of  laws,  254 

Agrarian  law,  251 

Agriculture  of,  47,  244 

Architecture,  248-50 

Buildings  of,  242-3,  244-5 

Irrigation,  253 

Fraternal  law,  251 

Industries  of,  255,  284,  298 

Land  tenure,  250-3 

Revenues  of,  250 

Roads  of,  244-5 

Ruins  of,  246-9,  281,  334 

Social  laws  of,  244,  250 

Taxes  of,  250,  254 

Tombs  of,  296 

Treasures  of,  261 

Women  of,  298 
"  Incas  Bridge,"  354 
Indians,  17,  20,  24-31,  51,  106-7, 
112,  114,  117.  159,  162,  175, 
197-8,  202,  207,  221,  226-8, 
231,  241,  263,  272,  277-8,  279, 
284,  298,  305,  345,  348,  356, 
365.  367-9.  444.  461.  472,  504 


INDEX 


533 


Indians — continued 

Abuse    of,    30-1,    35,     117,    157, 
162,  203,  257,  263,  415 

Abuse  of  alcohol,  30,  278,  306 

Aymara,  226,  283 

Boat,  320 

Carib,  368,  377,  445 

Dwellings  of,  142,  157,  368,  398 

Forest,  198,  277-8 

Guarani,  184,  283 

Highland,  198,  278,  349,  510 

Quechua,  226,  283,  415 

Uncivilised,    184,    197,   202,   264, 
27S,  349.  367 

Villages  of,  296 
Infieles,  198,  264,  349 
Inquisivi  mines,  289 
Insect  life,  358,  407-8 
Instituto  Nacional,  309 
Interoceanic  Rly.,  426 
Intihuatana,  246 
Iquique,   192,  300,  304,   323,  327-S, 

330-3 
British  Club  at,  328 
Population,  303 
Iquitos,  108,  200,  203,  207,  230 
Cocoa  produced  in,  207 
Coffee  in,  207 
Cotton  in,  207 
Climate  of,  207 
Sugar  in,  207 
Irazu  Mt.,  461 
Iron,  49,  94,  98,  271,  360,  368,  373, 

422,  450,  457 
Irrigation,    47-8,    159,    250-1,    268, 

302,  317,  371,  407,  411,  414 
Italians,  17,  68,  86,  128,  135,  175, 
177.   238,   319,   327.   3S1,   470, 
475-6,  480 
Colony,  238,  475-6 
Emigration  of,  128,  475-7,  480 
Societies  for  mutual  benevolence, 

476 
Trade,  376,  476 
Iturbide,  Emperor,  393,  395 
Itopango  Lake,  459 
Ixtacihuatl  Mt.,  399,  402-3 

JALAPA,  383 
Jalisco,  405 
Jamaica,  341,  385 
Japanese,  199,  499,  520 

Colonies,  96,  499 
Japura  K.,  loS 


Jauja,  219 

Jesuits,    92,    106,    117,  161-3,  188, 

213,  277-8,  298,  312 
Jetsam,  194 
Jewish  colony,  131 
Jockey  Club,  The,   138-9,  149,  395 
Juanacatlan,  Falls  of,  405,  424 
Juan  Fernandez  Island,  321 
Juarez,  385,  387,  393,  397 
Jujuy,  129,  159-60 

Area  of,  129,  160 

Population  of,  129,  160 

Products  of,  160 
Junin,  200,  328 

Area  of,  200 

Population  of,  200 

Lake  of,  226 

Nitrate  port  at,  32  S 

La  Guadalupe  Mt.,  346 
La  Guayra,  363,  369,  375 
Laguna,  412 
Laguna  lilanca  Lake,  296 

Borax  in,  296 
Lambayeque,  200,  232 

Area  of,  200 

Population  of,  200 
Land  grants,  295,  319,  472-4,    487, 
"  Land  of  fire,"  320 
Lane,  William,  188 
La  Libertad,  460 

La  Paz,  226,  276,  278-g,   287,  2S9, 
292,  294,  295-7,  331 

American  institute  in,   283 

Area  of,  281 

Climate,  280 

Gold  in.  288 

Population,  279,  281 

Railways,  27S-9,  295 

University  of,  283 
La  Paz  Yungas  Railway,  295 
La    Plata,    46,  123,   125,  134,   143, 
476 

River  system,  290 

University  of,  41,  132-3 
Laredo,  426 
La  Serena,  315 

Cathedral  of,  315 
Latacunga,  265,  268 

Population  of,  265 
Latin  America,  9-59 

Area  of,  59 

Agricultural  wealth  in,  46-7,  508 

Capitalists  of,  26,  507 


534 


INDEX 


Latin  America — continued 

Church  and  State  in,  35 

Climate  of,  47,  49,  54,  511 

Constitutions  of,  32-3 

Development  of,  24 

Currency  in,  499 

Education  in,  40-2 

Emigration  to,  470-487 

Extent  of  territory,  12,  503 

Foreign  trade  of,  11,  26,  49,  183, 
470-502 

Government  in,  30-36 

Governing  class  of,  17-8,  210,  509 

Growth  of,  23,  508 

Language  in,  55 

Mines  of,  50,  52 

Navigable  rivers  of,  45 

Navy  of,  500-1 

Pestilence  and  malaria  in,  53 

Population  of,   12,  15,  59,  503 

Products  of,  10,  14,  46-7 

Racial  composition  of  people,  14, 
18-24,  56,  379 

Railways  of,  42,  518 

Religion  of,  23,  35 

Roads  of,  44 

Scenery  of,  57 

Seaports  of,  46 

Society  in,  39,  209 

Sociological  condition  of,   503-4 

Temperament   of    people  in,   14, 
18-24,  56,  379 

Universities  of,  41-2 

Women  of,  21-4,  31,  130,  210 
Lead,  235,  271,  297,  450 
"  League  of  Students  Societies,"  42 
Leather  tanning,  161,  186,  336 
Libra  esterlina,  511 
Lempa  R.,  459 
Leon,  265 

Leon  (Nicaragua),  454 
"  Leopoldina,"  80-1 
Lerdo,  412 

Lerdo,  President,  430 
Lesseps,  de  Co.,  The,  466-7 
Ley  de  India s,  29 
Libertad,  200 
"  Liberty  bell,"  The,  395 
Liebig  factories,  179 
Life  in  the  country,  38 
Lima,  41,  192,  200-1,  203,  205,  207, 
212,  220,  230,  308,  342,  519 

Architecture  in,  207 

Area  of,  200 


Lima — continued 

Breweries,  239 

Cotton-growing  in,   232,   239 

Education  in,  210 

Mining  tax  in,  211 

Name  of,  212 

Population  of,  200,  208 

Pastimes  in,  216-7 

Printing  in,  213 

Produce  of,  232-3 

Religion  in,  212-6 

Women  of,  210 
"  Lima  Fundada,"  211 
Limantour,  Sefior,  431 
Limari  R.,  302 
Limon  Bay,  464 
Limon  R.,  374 
Lirima  Peak,  196 
Llama,  46,  233,  253,  284-5,  296 
Llampu,   196,   276.     See  Sorata 
Llanganati  Mt.,  261 
Llaneros,  372 

Llanos,  343,  364,  366,  372 
Lluta  R.,  295 

Valley,  295 
Loa  R.,  302.  330,  333-4 
Lobitos  oilfields,  205 
"  Lobos  del  Mar,"  193 
Locusts,  158-9 

Lodes,  52,  234-5,  301,  322,  423 
Loen  R.,  360 
Loja,  265 
Lomas,  139 
Longitudinal  Railway  of  Chili,  323, 

328,  333-4 
Loreto,  200,  206 

Coca  plantations  in,  206 
Los  Andes,  129,  330 
Los  Rios,  265 
Lota,  328 

Coal  mines  of,  328 
Lotteries,  140,  216,  392 
Louisana,  155 
Lourdes  of  Mexico,  399 
Lower  California,  381 

Macahk,  80 

Maceio,  80,  84 

Machachi,  269 

Machala,  265 

Madeira  R.,  108,  114,  277,  290 

Madeira-Mamore  Railway,  114,  277, 

291 
Madre  de  Dios  R.,  291 


INDEX 


535 


Magdalena,  351 

River,     46,     343-4,     352,    354-5, 
357-9 
Magellan  Ferdinand,  320 
Magellan,  318,  320 
Cattle,  318 
Gold  mines  in,  318 
Sheep-farniing  in,  318,  320 
Straits  of,  320,  332,  466,  468 
Maguey,  The,  or  Century  Plant,  222, 

272,  357,  413 
Mahogany,  356-7,  447-8,  456,  462 
Maipures,  373 

Maize,   97-8,     154,   181,     186,   193, 
222-4,  253,  272,  285,  292,  317, 
334,  372.  414,  448,  515 
Malaria,  54,  107,  192,  207,  267,  369, 

444 

Malaysia,  112 

Maldonado,  176 

Mahnche  Mt.,  403 

Mamore  R.,  291 

Manabi,  265 

Managua,  454 

Manaos,  78-9,  84,  113-4,  367 

Climate  of,  79 
Manco  Capac,  244,  248 
"  Mandioca,"  92-3,  97,  186 

"  Farinha  de,"  93 
Manati,  108 

Manioc,  or  cassava,  98,  286 
Manizales,  351 
Mantaro  R.,  196 
Manufactured    articles,    239,     270- 

286,  297.  327.  376.  425.  450 
Mapimi,  410,  412,  422 

Silver  lead  mines  in,  422 
Mapocho  R.,  311 
Mara,  374 
Maracaibo,  374 

Buildings  of,  374 

Education  of,  374 

Gulf  of,  355,  364 

Import  trade  of,  375 

Lake  of,  374-5 

Population  of,  374 
Maracaibo  coffee,  372 
Marajo,  112 
Maranhao,  65-6,  80 

Area  of,  65 
Marafion  R.,   106-7,   122,    196,  203, 

206,  248,  262 
Marble,  95 
Massaraneluba,  or  "  Cow-tree,"  no 


Matto    Grosso,    65-6,    80,    82,    84, 
114,  184,  187 

Area  of,  05 

Cattle-raising  in,  100,  187 

Gold-mining  in,  93 
Mauri  R.,  296 

Maximiliano  of   Austria,    394,   404 
Mayas,  The,  243-4,  433-440.  44^ 

Ruins  of,  428,  438 
Mazapil,  422 
Mazatlan,  405,  426 
Medanos,  193 
Medellin,  350,  355 

Population  of,  351 

University  of,  350 
Mejillares,  331 
Melo,  177 
Mendoza  (City),  143,  155 

Population  of,  143 

Vineyards  of,  150 
Mendoza,  129,  155 

Schools  in,  131 
Mercedes,  177,  181 
i\Ierida,  370,  382,  428 

Population,  382 

University  of,  370 
"  Mesa  de  Hervio,"  344 
Mestizos,  15-7.  20,  24,  26,  29,   175, 
198,  203,  224,  263,   272,  277-8, 
305.     345.      348-9.    356,     3<J9. 
380,  406,  444-5,  481 
Meta  R.,  354,  365-7 
Mexican  Central  Rly.,  426 
Mexican  National  Rly.,  426 
Mexican  Southern  Rly.,  426 
Mexican  Vera  Cruz  Rly.,  404 
Mexico,  29,  31,  60,   130,   185,  212, 
244,   379-432,   468,   502.  516 

Area  of,  12,  58,  380,  382 

Agriculture  in,  411,  414,  416 

Climate  of,  381-2,  432 

Education  in,  385,  431 

Emigration  to,  475 

Fauna  of,  408 

Flora  of,  410 

Foreign  trade  of,  415,  424,  428 

Gold  in,  52,  77,  420-2 

Government,  20,  383,  429-432 

Housing     of     the    people,     389, 

433 
Indians  in,  27,  29,  385,  415 
"  Jacales  "  of,  389 
Mines    of,    25,    27,    49-50,    419- 

22 


536 


INDEX 


Mexico — continued 

Oilfields  of,  49,  424 

Peons  of,  27,  38,  385,  390,  396-7, 
406,  412,  415,  432 

Prisoners  of,  20 

Population  of,   12,   16-7,  58,   380 

Products  of,  47,  411-4,  425 

Railways  of,  425,  432 

Kainfall  of,  48,  411 

Religion,  386,  434 

Revenue,   428-30 

Rubber  in,  53,  416 

States  and  territories,  384-5 

Women  of,  389 

Zones  of,  382 
Mexico   (City),   342,   382,   387,   391, 
393,  401.  425-6,  433.  435 

Cathedral  of,  394 

Canal  of,  27 

Commerce  in,  387 

Jockey  Club  of,  395 

Museum  at,  435,  438 

Population,  382,  393 

Public  buildings  of,  395 

Streets  of,  395 

Upper  class  of,  396 

University  of,  41,  386 
Mexico,  Gulf  of,  341,  381,  404,  428 
Mexico,  States  of,  384-5 
Michoacan,  387 
"  Military  Mission,"  203 
Minima  Gorge,  354 
Minas,  176 

Minas  Geraes,  65,  67,  77,  79-80,  83, 
100 

Area  of,  65 

Coffee  in,  84 

Exports  of,  77 

Gold-mining  in,  93,  96 

Iron  deposits  of,  94 
Mining,  25,  27,  49-50.  67,  77,  93-4 
165-6,  205,  209,  256,  271, 
282,  287-9,  331.  358-9,  373-4, 
411,  419-20,  450,  455,  457, 
461 

Laws,  423 

Rights,  95,  290,  421-3 

Tax,  420-1,  423 
Mining  and  religious  sentiment,  51, 

420 
Minister  of  Agriculture,  152 
Mira  R..  262 
Miraflores,  208 

Lake,  465 


Misericordia  hospitals,   73 

Misiones  Territory,  129,  159,  161 

Misti  Volcano,  196 

Mitafifi,  233 

Mitla,  Ruins  of,  433,  436-7 

Moctezuma,  401 

Palace  of,  395 
"  Mogyana,"  80 
MoUendo,  218,  279 

Railway  terminus  in,  218 
Mombacho,  455 
Monkeys,  109,  221,  485 
Monoliths,  250,  436 

Hall,  The,  of  the,  436 
Monroe  Doctrine,  484,  486,  495 
Monserrato  Mt.,  346 
Montagua  R.,  452 
Montana,  197 

Montafia,    121,   199-200,    202,    206, 
218,  220,  229-30 

Lavish  products  of,  229 

Rubber  of,  230 
Monte  Alban,  436 
Monte  de  Piedad,  395 
Monterey,  382,  405,  425-6 

Area,  406 

Cathedral  of,  406 

Climate  of,  405 

Industries  of,  405,  425 

Population  of,  382,  405 

Rainfall  of,  405 

Streets  of,  406 
Montevideo,  84,  126,  174,  178,  312 

Architecture  in,  178 

British  capital  in,  178 

Climate  of,  177 

Cost  of  living  in,  178 

Docks  in,  177 

Population  of,  177 

Railways  in,  178 
Montevideo    (Department),    177 
"  Montevideo  "  wheat,  181 
Moquegua,  200,  218 
Morelia,  383 
Morelos,  394,  413 
Morococala  Mine,  289 
]\Iorona  R.,  262 
Morro  \'elbo,  95-6 
Mosquitos,  54,  107,  226,  267 
Moyobamba,  200 
Mules,  272,  318,  406,  418 
Muzo,  359 

Naos  Island,  465 


INDEX 


537 


Napo  R.,  262,  354 

Indian  tribes  on,  264 
Narino,  351,  359 

Area  of,  351 

Gold  in,  359 

Population,  351 
Natal,  80 

"  National  Railways,"  426 
National  Society  of  Agriculture,  316 
Native  workers,  29,  157-8,  236,  374, 
419,  421,  461,  4S0 

Poverty  of,  158,  421 
Nazas  R.,  410,  412 
Nazca,  234 

Gold  in,  234 
Negro  R.,  78,  181,  366 
Negroes,  67,  128,  264,  348-9,  445,  459 
Neiva,  351-2 

Population,  351 
Neo-Malthusian  practices,  389 
Neuquen,  129 
Nevado  de  Toluca,  403 
"  New  Australia,"   188-9 
New  Grenada,  342,  347 
New   Panama  Canal  Co.,  The,  467 
"  New  Spain,"  393 
Newspapers,    143,    176,   212,   496 
New  York,  426,  429,  465,  494 
Nexaca,  424 
Nicaragua,  58,  439,  441,  454-6 

Area  of,  58,  441 

Canal,  454 

Climate,  454 

Mining,  455 

Population,  58,  444 

Products  of,  454-6 

Volcanoes,  441 
Nicoya,  Gulf  of,  460-1 
Nitrate,  47,  204,  208,  239-40,  300, 
317,  322-8,  333,  508 

Export  of,  325-6 

Imports  of,  327 

Origin  of,  324 

Price  of,  327 
Nitrate  Railway,  330,  333 
"  Noche  Triste,"  401 
Nofeuquen  Territory,  164 
Northern  Brazil,  66 

Products  of,  66 

Oak,  382,  407 

Oaxaca,  383,  401,  413,  436 

Ocros,  234 

0/icinas.  235.  300,  322-4,  330-1,  333-4 


O'Higgins,  Don  Bernardo,  311 

Olancho,  457 

Ollague,  331 

OUantaytambo,  246 

Opaburu,  294 

Orchids,  358,  410 

Orellana,  90,  106,  262 

Oriente  territory,  265 

Orinoco  R.,  46,  343,  354,  362,  364-8, 

373.  377 
Navigable    for    steamers,    365-6, 

375 
Orizaba,  391 

Alountain,  403 
Oroya    Railway,    206,    209,    220-1, 

229,  236 
Oruba  Island,  362 
Oruro,  279,  281-2,  289,  293,  331 

Area  of,   281 

Mines  of,  289 

Population    of,    281 

Tin-producing  in,   289 
Oruro-Antofagasta  Railway,  296 
Osorno,   330 
Otuzco,  234 
Ouro  Preto,  95 

Pachacamac,  205,  249 

Ancient  pottery  in,   205 
Pachuca,  383,  401,  420 

Population  of,  383 

Silver  mines  in,  420 
Pacific   Islands,    199 
Pajanales,   207 
Palenque,  437 
Palermo,  139 
Palms,   303,   410 
Paltas,  222 
Paludismo,  192 
Pampa,    129 

Panama,   59,    76,   341-4.   354.    380, 
437.  440,  442,  463-7 

Area  of,  59,  441 

Population  of,  59,  444 

Products  of,  464 
Panama    Canal,     44-5,     341,     360, 
376,  380,   427,  442,   463-7' 

Cost  of,  467 

Shortening    of    routes    by    the, 
465-6 
Panama  (City),  463,  465,  467 
"  Panama  "  hats,  205,   239,  271 
Pan-American  Railway,  333,  518 
Pan-American  Union,  496,  501,  51S 


538 


INDEX 


Pan-Germans,  486 
Papantla,  433,  436 

Pyramids  at,   436 
Para,   66,   78,    111-2,    116,   291 

Area  of,   65 

Rubber  of,   47,    in 
Paracas,  235 
Paraguay,   58,   82,   97,    125,    183-9, 

475 

Area  of,  58,  184 

British  capital  in,    189 

Climate,    184,    186 

Education  in,  185 

Finance,  189 

Food  of  the  people,   186 

Government  of,  185,    188 

Industries,  185-7 

Leprosy  in,   188 

Missions,  162,  184 

Railways,  187,  i8g 

Rainfall,  184 

Revolutions  in,    188 

River,  82,  84,  126,  183,  291 
Parahyba,   65-6 
Paramos,    344 
Parana,  65,  67,    80,   126,   139,   143 

Atrocities,    163 

Area  of,   65 

River,    82,    84,    97,    126-7,    ^42, 
183,  187 
Paranagua,   80 
Parapiti  R.,  291 
Paratizba,    91 
Parinacochas,  Lake,  226 
Parral,  424 
Paseo  de  Colon,  208 
Paseo  de  la  Reforma,  397 
Pastaza  R.,  262 
Pasto,  351 
Pastoral  industries  of  : 

Brazil,    99 

Argentina,    127,    134,     147,    149, 

153 

Uruguay,  179 

Chili,  300,  318 

Colombia,   349 

Venezuela,    371 
Patagonia,  127,  163,  300,  320,  480 

Wool -producing  industry  in,  155 
Pataz,  234 
Patia   R.,   354 
Paucartambo   R.,    196 
■'  Paulista,"    80 
Paulo  Alfonso  Falls,  84,  97 


Paysandu,  126,   175,   177 
Payta,   204 

Cotton   produced   in,    204 
Paz  Soldan,   211 
Pearl-fishing,  373,  460-1 
Pedro  de  Candia,   194 
Pedro  de  Heredia,   342 
Pedro  de  Texiera,   106 
Pedro  Miguel,  465 
Peons,  The,  27,  38,   385,  390,   395, 
397.    406,    412,  415,    432 

Oppression  of,  412,  415 
Peralta,   211 
Perene  R.,  196 
Pernambuco,  65-6,  78,  80,  91-98 

Area  of,   65 

Sugar  cultivation  in,  91 
Pertenencia,   423 

Peru,  15,  25,  29,  41,  47,  79,  108, 
121,  130,  159,  191,  257,  264, 
300,  308,  321,  333,  343,  354, 
468 

Agricultural  wealth  of,  209,  232, 

354 

Area  of,  58,  197 

Climate  of,   191-2,  221 

Cotton  in,  239 

Education,  210,  240 

Emigration    to,    474-5 

Exports,  2og 

Foreigners  in,  238 

Gold  in,  52,  77,  234 

Government  of,  201,  235,  240 

Incas  of,  244 

Indians  in,   198 

Manufacturing  industries,   239 

MiUtary  service,  203 

Mineral  wealth  of,  209,  21S 

Mines,  25,   27,   49,   77,   205.   235 

Navy,  202 

People  of,    16,   207-15 

Petroleum  in,    49 

Population  of,  58,  198 

Products     of,     47-52,     77,     2og, 
218,  230-2,  234,   239,   354 

Religion,    212-4,    2S3 

Revenue,    236,    239-40 

Rubber  in,  230-2 

Sugar  in,  193,  229-32,  239 

Zones   of,    197 
"  Peruvian    Balsam,"    460 
Peruvian  Corporation,  237 

Capital  of,   237 
Peten   Lake,   452 


INDEX 


539 


Petroleum,  49,  165,  204,  235,  271, 

290,  353.  360,  373-4.  424 
Pliilip  II.,  162 
Piauhy,  65-6 

Area  of,   65 
Pichincha,  265  , 
Mountain,   262 
Pilcomayo   R.,    291 
Pine,   382,   407,   450 
Piraporo,  84 
Pisac,  246 
Pisagua,  323,  328 

Nitrate  port  of,  328 
Pisco,  217,  237 

Cotton  plantations  in,   217,   233 

Sugar  plantations  in,  217 
Piura,  200,  203-4,  233 

Area  of,  2©o 

Cotton  in,  233 

Population  of,   200 

River,  204 
Pizarro,    50,    106,    194,    207,    211, 

219,  244,  397 
Plaintain,  The,  449 
Platinum,   95,  271,   358 
Plaza  de  Armas,  207 
Plaza  de  Independencia,  311 
Plaza  de  la  Inquisition,  208 
Pointis,   343 
Poopo,    or    AuUagus,    Lake,  225-6, 

276,  279,  296,  331 
Popayan,    351 
Popocatepetl  Mt.,  399,  402 
Port  Gallegos,  164 
Port   Limon,    461 
Porto   Madryn,    164 
Portoveijo,   265 
Porto  Velho,    114 
Portuguese,    15,   28,   62,    106,    112, 

"9.  377.  470.  478 
Port  William,  165 
Potatoes,  46,  223,  233,  272,   285-7, 

317.   345.  356.   416 
Poto,   234 
Potochic  R.,  452 
Potos,   331 
Potosi,  50,  281-2,  286-7,  292 

Area  of,  281 

Mines   of,    287-8 

Population  of,  281,  287 
Pozuzo,   238 
Prairies,    or    pampas,    125-7,    ^^34- 

150-1,  234,  301,  318,  371 
Precious  stones,   93,   267,   288,   359 


Prinzapolka,  455 

Progreso,  428 

Propaganda  Agency,  326,   473 

Propaganda  Fide,  284 

Puebla,  382,  391,  401,  413 

Churches   of,    401 

Doric  cathedral  of,   401 

Population,  382,  401 

Products  of,  402 

Public  buildings  in,  401 

Railway  in,  401 
Puerto  Acre,  291 
Puerto    Berrio,    355 
Puerto  Cabello,   375 
Puerto   Colombia,   355 
Puerto    Cortes,    457 
Puerto   Mexico,   427 
Puerto   Montt,   320,   330 
Pulacayo,   282 
Pulque,   30,   396,   413-4 
Puna  brava,  277,  344 
Puno,   200,   215,   219-20,   279 
Punta   Arenas,    301,    304,    320 
Puntarenas,    461 
Purus  R.,   108,   122,  291 
Putumayo,  106,  108,  117,  119 

Atrocities  in,  106,  108,  117,   119, 
215.    231 
Putumayo    R.,    354 
Pyramids  of  the  Sun  and  the  Moon, 
435 

Quebracho  timber,  161,    186 

Quebradas,  295 

Quechuas,   198,  200,  212,  226,  283 

Quemada,  Ruins  of,  434 

Queretaro,  383 

Quesada,  347,  351 

Area  of,  351 

Population,  351 
Quespesisa,  235 
Quezaltenango,   447,   451 

Population  of,  450 
Quiches,  The,  433,  437,  446.  451 
Quicksilver,     51,     220,     235,     271, 

460 
Quillaga,  333-4 
Quilliquilli  Hills,  294 
Quinine,  46,  230,  272,  285,  297 
Quinoa,  223,  285 
Quintana  Hoo,  385,  428 
Quirigu.T,  437,  439 

Ancient  relics  at,  439 
Qiiishua  tree,   223 


540 


INDEX 


Quito,  244,  259-60,  262,  264-5,  269, 
279 

Buildings  of,   269 

Cathedral  of,   269 

Church  architecture  in,  268 

Name  of,   270 

Population  of,   265,   269 

Railway   of,   267,   269 

University  of,  266,  270 
Quito-Guayaquil  Railway,  227 

Race-xostalgia,  17 

Railways,  27,  42,  67,  79-83,  142, 
166,  178,  182,  187,  204-5, 
219,  227,  236-8,  266,  278-9, 
282,  290-5,  311-4,  328,  33^, 
338.  352,  355.  375.  401.  404. 
425-7.  475.  490-1,  518-9 
British  capital  in,  296-7,  330, 
355.  375.  425.  488 

Rainfall,  48,  109,  127,  137,  230,  267, 

292,   303.   314.   320,   354.   371. 
405,  417,  452 

Lack  of,  191-2,  371,  417 
Raton  Island,  373 
Rawson,  164 
Real  del  Monte,  420 
Recuay,  205 

Mines  of,  206 
"  Red  earth,"  85-6 
"  Regions   of    everlasting   spring," 

207 
Religious  fanaticism,  215,  288,  386 
Reptiles,  109,  353-4,  358.  367,  407 
Ricardo  Pal  ma,  213 
Rice,  90-1,  99,  205,  268,  272,  356 
Rimac  R.,  233 

Valley,  209 
Riobamta,  265,  268 
Rio  Blanco,  322 

Rio  de  Janeiro,  67,  71,  75-81,  97, 
100,  104,  179,  300,  405,  501 

Area  of,  65 

As  a  fever  port,  76,  87 

Cost  of  living,  77 

Harbour  of,  76 

Industries  of,  84,  88,  92 

Iron  deposits  in,  94 

Population  of,  77,  86 

Railways,  80-1 
Rio   Grande   del   Norte,    379,    411, 

426 
Rio  Grande  do  Norte,  65-6 

Area  of,  65 


Rio  Grande  do  Sul,  65,  67,  100,  486 

Area  of,  65 

Coal  in,  95 
Rioja,  129 

Area  of,  129 

Population  of,  129 
Rio  Negro,  108,  114,  118,  129 

River,  355,  367,  373 
Rio  Negro  (Department),  177 
Rivas,  455 
Rivera,  177 
River  Plate,  59,  82,  126,  163,  174- 

189.  277,  365,  3S2,  476,  506 
Rocha,  177 
Rosario,  126,  132,  139,  142,  158-9, 

476 
Rotos,  The,  307-8,  323,  391,  512 
Rowing,  139 

Rubber,  53,  74,  102,  no,  112,  115, 
218,  232,  272,  287,  297,  352, 
368,  373,  416,  447,  462,  464 

Prices  of,  116 

Guayle,  416 

Guayule,  416 

Hevea,  373 
Rum,  30,  278,  285,  356,  413 
Russia,  477 

Immigration  from,  477 

Saavedra,  313 

"  Sacrificial  Stone,"  395 

Sacsaihuaman,  245 

"  Saladeros,"  179,  187,  284 

Salama,  450 

Salaverry,  Port  of,  205 

Salina  Cruz,  401,  405,  427 

Salinas,  422 

"  Salitreras,"  300,  324 

Salpo,  205 

Mines  in,  205,  234 
Salta,  129,  159-60,  175 

Population  of,   129,   160 

Products  of,  160 
Saltillo,  3S3 
Salto,  177 
Salvador,  59,  441,  459-60 

Area  of,  59,  441 

Agriculture,  460 

Population  of,  59,  444 

Products  of,  460 

Volcanoes  in,  441 
San  Andre,  281 

University  of,  281 
San  Angel,  397 


INDEX 


541 


San  Bias,  405 

Sandia,  234 

San  Fernando,  366 

San  Francisco,  82,  466 

San  Francisco  R.,  84 

Sangay,  261 

San  Gil,  351 

San  Jose,  177 

San  Jose  (Costa  Rica),  461-2 

San  Juan,  129,  156,  234 

Area  of,  129 

Gold  in,  234 

Population  of,  129 

Schools  in,  132 
San  Juan  de  Ulloa,  404 
San  Lorenzo,  Island  of,  209 
San  Luis,  80,  129 
San  Lrois  Potosi,  382 

Population,  382 
San   Marcos,  University  of,   210-1, 

213 
San  Martin,  311 
San  Martin  (town),  200 
San  Miguel  Mt.,  459 
San  Pedro  Vol.,  331 
San  Salvador,  459 
San  Salvador  (I3razil),  80 
Santa  Anna,  460 
Santa  Barbara,  232,  424 
Santa  Catalina  factory,  239 
Santa  Catherina,  65,  67,  80,  486 

Area  of,  65 

Coal  in,  95 
Santa  R.,  204 
Santa  Cruz,  129,  282,  290 

Area  of,  129,  281 

Gold  in,  288 

Population  of,  129.  281 
Santa  Cruz  del  Quiche,  450-1 
Santa  Elena,  271 
Santa  Eulalia,  424 
Santa  Fe,  143,  476 

Wool-producing  industry,  155 
Santa     Fe     and     Cordova     Great 

Southern  Land  Co.,  161 
Santa  Lucia,  311 
Santa  ]\Iarta,  351 
Santa  Marta  Rly.,  355 
Santander,  351,  360 
Santa  Rosa,  351 

Population,  351 
Santa  Ynes,  235 

Santiago,  208,  300,  303,  310,  314-5, 
332,  33(>.  339.  405 


Santiago — continued 

Buildings  of,  309,  31 1-2 

Climate  of,  303,  312 

Earthquakes  in,  312 

Population,  312 

Railways  of,  311 

Rivers  of,  410 

Streets  of,  31 1-2 
Santiago  del  Estero,  129,  159 
Santo  Domingo,  234 

Convent  of,  219 
Santos,  80-1,  85-7,  91 

Sanitation  of,  87 

Exports  of  coffee  in,  87 

Sugar  cultivation  in,  91-2 
Sao  Joac  da  Barra,  80 
"  Sao  Paulo,"  So 
Sao  Paulo,  67,  77-8,  97-8,  300 

Area  of,  65,  85 

Education  in,  87 

Population  of,  6S-9,  85 

Produce,  68,  84,  87-8,  92 

Trade,   77 
Sapucaya,  iii 
Sara  Sara  Peak,  196,  226 
Sardinate  R.,  374 
St.  John  del  Re3^  95 
Savare  R.,  366 
Sechura,  204 
"  Secret  of  the  Pacific,  The,"  250, 

434.  437 
Selkirk,  Alexander,  321 
Sergipe,  65-6,  84 

Area  of,  65 
Serpent's  Mouth,  The,  365 
Sena  do  Espinhai^o  R.,  94 

Gold  in,  94 

Iron  in,  94 
Sharks,  193 
Sheep  farming,  155,  164-5,  iSo,  272, 

318,   320-1,   418 
Sierra,  197 
Sierra  Madre  Mts.,  381,  403-4 

Eastern,  381 

Western,  381 
Sierra  Nevada  de  Merida  Mts.,  364 
Sierra  Talamanca,  461 
Silver,  50,  205,  220,  235,  238,  252, 
256,  282,   287-8,   297,  301,  322, 

327.  358,  419-21,  450.  457 
Sinaloa,  413 
Sinu  R.,  357 

Slavery,  162,  199,  231,  263,  33S,  415 
Abolition  of,  358 


542 


INDEX 


Snow-blindness,  or  serumpe,  228-9 

Snow-sheds,  332 

Socialism,  144,  182,  256,  514 

Sociology  and  Future  of  Latin 
America,  503-521 

Solola,  450 

Sonora,   419 

Sorata,   ig6,  276,  2S9,  292-3,  296 

Soriano,  177 

"  Sorocabana,"  80 

Soroche,   228,   301 

South  Africa,  94 

South  America,  12,  43,  47,  61,  79- 
80,  92,  126,  190,  215,  257,  314, 
332,   341.   343,   354.   356,    374. 

377.  380,  468,   476-7,  488,  517 
Ancient  people  of,  205 

British  capital  in,  489 
Cotton-growing  in,  155 
Exports  from,  494 
Flood  years  of,  47 
Gold  in,  52 
Immigrants  to,  490 
Missionary  Society,   184 
Railways  of,  236,  334 
Rubber  in,  53 
Trade  of,  493 

See  also  liitin  America 
Southern  Brazil,  66-9 
Southern  Railway  of  Peru,  237,  279 
Spaniards,    15,   20,   28,   53,   62,   69, 
106,    128,   130,    135,    175,    177, 
212,  219,  238,  256-7,  263,  270, 
280,   287,   319,   345,   347,   358, 
363,    391-2,    397,     401-2,    418, 
420,  430,  433-4,  442,  470,  478, 
4S0 
"  Spanish  Main,"  The,  341,  362 
Sports,   138-9,  313,  392 
Stanley,  165 
Straw,  274 

Hats,  274 
Strikes,  144,  183,  240,  391,  509,  514 
Sucre,  279,  281,  283,  290,  374 
Area  of,  281 
Population  of,  281 
University  at,  283 
Sugar,  77,  91-2,  97-8,  153,  156,  160, 
186,  193,  205,  207,  209,  217-8, 
229,  268,  271-2,  285,   356,  372, 

378,  408,   413,   425,   450,   455, 
464 

Laws  concerning,   156-7 
Plantations,  199,  238,  413 


Sugar — continued 

Planting  and  cutting,  91,  229 

Selangor  cane,  91 
Sulphur,  296,  322,  373,  402-3 

Springs,  402 
Supe,  233 
Surinan,  84 
Swastika,  The,  437 
Sydney,  405 

Tabasco,  410,  416 
Tabatinga,  108 
Tacna,   197,  200 
Tacna  (Chile),  303-4 
Tacora  Volcano,  296 
Tacuarembo,  177 
Tacubaya,  397 
Tacuru,  294 

"  Tagua,"  272,  274,  356 
Talara,  235 

Petroleum  in,  235 
Talca,  303 

Talcahuano,  314,  319,  328 
Tallow,  165 
Taltal,  323,  328 

Railway,  330 
"  Tammanjasm,"  146 
Tampico,  382,  424,  426 
Tapajos  R.,  108 
Taenia,  224 

Tarapaca,  195,  300,  327 
Tarata,  2 82 
Tariffs,  89,  142,  144,  209,  335,  356, 

375.  398,  425 
Tarija,  281,  290 
Taxation,  97,  128,  142,  172,  250,  254, 

290,  361,  420-1,  423,  478,  506, 

515 
Tea,  67,  92,  162,  185,  287 
Tegucigalpa,  456 
Tehuantepec,  440 

Isthmus  of,  381,  411 

Railway,  401,  407 
Tenguel  plantation,  273 
Tenochtitlan,  393,  402 
Teotihuacan,  401,  433,  435 

Pyramids  at,  433,  435 
Tequendama,  346 
Terrazas  Hacienda,  418 
Texas,  393,  413,  416,  430 
Texcoco  Lake,  400,  402 
Theatres,  140,  311-2,  392,  401 
Thermal  springs,  294 
Tiahuanako  ruins,  226,  247,  250,  281 


INDEX 


543 


Tierra  del  Fuego,  127,  129,  299,  320 
Tigre,  139 

River,  262 
Timber,    no,    160,    170,    1S6,    222, 
2S7,   315,   356,   378,   412,   422, 
458,  462 
Tin,  i()6,  285,  287-90,  297,  419,  450 
Titicaca,  195.  225,  235,  276,  331 
Lake  of,  219,  225-6,  245,  247,  276, 

279-So,  291,  290 
River,  291,  296 
Tlahualilo,  412 
Tlalpam,  397 

Tobacco,  79,  91.  186,  205,  224,  228, 
■  272,  285,  356,  415,  464 
Manufacture  of,  415 
Tocantins,  loS 
Tocora  Peak,  196 
Tocopilla,  328 
Tolima,  351,  358,  360 
Copper  ore ,  in,  360 
Toltecs,  The,  243,  433 

Pyramids  of.  The,  434 
Toluca,  383 
Topographical    features,     46,    292, 

352.  355.  360,  425 
Toro  Pt.,  464 
"  Tortilla,"  389,  399 
Totonicapan,  450-1 
Totora,  282 

Tovra  planning,  37,  139.  3S3 
Trachyte,  437 

Trans-Andean  Rly.,  47,  3M.  330-2 
"  Treasures  of  the  Snow,"   190 
Treinta-y-tres,  177 
Trinidad,  281,  341,  362,  365 
Trujillo,  200,  205,  215,  375 

University  in,  211 
Trunk  system,  80 
"  Trust  Methods,"  491 
Tucuman,  129,  143,  156,  158-60 
Area  of,  129,  160 
Population  of,  129,  143,  156 
Schools  in,  131 
Sugar-producing  in,   156 
Tulcan,  265 
Tumbez,  194,  200,  235 
Petroleum  in,  235 
River,  204 
Tuna,  416 
Tundama,  351 
Tunfa,  351 
Tunguragua,  265 
Mountain,  261 


Tupiza,  279,  282,  333 
Turtles,  109 

Shell,  456,  464 
Tuxtla  Gutierrez,  384 

UcAYALi  R.,   106-7,  122-3,  196,  237 
Illua  R.,  457 
Unini,  331 

United  States,   20,    107,   343,   361, 
415,  421,  426,  428-30.  435,  464, 
466,  480,  482,  487,    492,    505, 
508-9,  520-1 
Uribante  R.,  366 

Uruguay,  58,  67,  99,  125,  174-183, 
475.  506,  516 

Agriculture,   179-80 

British  capital  in,  182 

Climate,  174,  180,  183 

Education  in,  176 

Emigrants  to,  475 

Government  of,   175,   182-3 

Industries,  179,  181 

Products  of,  179-181 

Railways,   182 

Revenue  of,  181 

Rivers  of,  126-7,  I74>  i"^' 

Trade  of,  180-1 
Uspallata  Pass,  334 
Usumacinta  R.,  410,  452 
Utah,  435 
Utatlan,  451 
Uxmal,  437-8 
Uynini,  279,  282 

Valdivia,  303-4,  31 1-4 

Industries  of,  315 
Valencia,  375 

Lake,  375 
Valenciana  mine,  419 
Valorisation  of  coffee,  74,  87-8 
Valparaiso,  208,  300,  304,  310,  312- 
3.  315.  321.  329-30.  33-:.  336. 
339.  512 

Buildings  of,  313 

Capture  of,  313 

Climate,  339 

Naval  school  at,  ,-,3 5 

Population,  304 
Valparaiso-Santiago  Railway,  330 
Vaquero,  The,  417 
Vasco  Munez  de  Balboa,  442 
Venezuela,  58,  79.  199,  377 

Area  of,  58,  364 


544 


INDEX 


Venezuela — continued 

Agriculture  of,  373 

Climate,  369 

Education,  370 

Industries,  370,  373-6 

Population  of,  58,  199,  3G9,  377 

Products  of,  374 

Railways,  375 

Religion  in,  371 

Trade,  376 
Ventuari  R.,  367 
Vera  Cruz,  76,  382,  399,  401,  404, 

413,  425,  427,  502 
Vernon,  Admiral,  343 
Viacha,  282,  296 
Viceroys,  287,  347,  419 
Vichada  R.,  354,  367 
Victoria,  80 

Victoria  regia,  184,  186 
Vicuna,  284,  301 
Vilcama3-o  R.,  196 
Villamazon,  355 
Villa  Rica,  187 
Vina  del  Mar,  313 
Vineyards,  156,  229,  302,  317 
Vitarte  Mills,  233 

Volcanoes,  260-1,  268-9,  276,  293, 
403-4,  442 

Wages,  50,  145,  180,  199,  203,  236, 

305.  307.  391.  399,  421.  471.  480 
Washington,  496 
Water  power,  97,  181,  234,  269,  286, 

334-  405,  424 
Waterways,   229,    263,   303,   342-3, 

353.  367,  375.  463 
Welsh  Colonies,  164,  4S0 
West  India  Islands,  341,  443 
VvTieat,  84,  134,  154,  160,  181,  222, 

233,  272,  292,  316-7,   372,  382, 

414,  449,  476,  515 

"  White  Slave  "  traffic,  140 


Wild  animals,  226,  234,  365,  408 
Wireless  telegraphy,  123,  230 
Wolfram,  235 

Wool,    155,  179-80,  224,    233,   272, 
284,  402 

Vicuna,  284 

Lincoln  fleece,  155 
Working  cost  of  mines,  95-7 

XiUGU  R.,  108 
Xochicalco,  436 
Xochimilco  Lake,  400 

Yacuiva,  290 

Yacuiva-Santa  Cruz  Railway,  290 

Yagans,  320 

Yapura  R.,  354 

Yaqui  R.,  410 

Yaqui  Indians,  29,  415 

Yareta,  222 

Yauli,  235 

Yellow  fever,  192,  267,  404 

Verba  Mate,  67,  gz,  162,  185,  287 

Yucatan,  29,  381,  414,  427-8.   433. 

437 
Industries  of,  428 

Ruins  in,  437 
Yungas,  277,  292 
Yungay,  206,  234 

Gold  in,  234 

Zacapa,  450 
Zacatecas,  383,  385,  434 

Mine,    420 
Zambos,   199.  264,  348 
Zapotec  culture,   433 
Zinc,  235,  289,  297 
Zipaquira,  351 
Zorritos,  235 
Zulia,  374 

River,  355 


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Aa    0U0  916  986    ;5 


